Ethical Issues in Information Technology
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What type of information is restricted from the general public in a democratic society?

  • Publicly accessible opinions
  • Censored information that is intrinsically harmful (correct)
  • Information that is deemed controversial
  • Filtered information that is reliable

    • According to John Stuart Mill, why is silencing an opinion considered harmful?

  • It simplifies the process of understanding
  • It ensures that only the majority view prevails
  • It stops a potential truth from being discovered (correct)
  • It protects individuals from misinformation

    • What is the Offense Principle in relation to freedom of speech?

  • Incitements to violence are considered merely offensive
  • Only speech causing intrinsic harm is restricted (correct)
  • All offensive speech is penalized
  • Hate speech can be penalized for being offensive

    • What happens to a piece of intellectual property when its protection expires?

    <p>It enters the public domain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a requirement for a patent to be granted?

    <p>It must be commercially viable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is trade secrecy protected in court?

    <p>By highlighting the efforts made to keep information secret</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which concept emphasizes the danger of simply memorizing information in a democracy?

    <p>Vigorous debate and free expression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes information that is considered intrinsically harmful?

    <p>It causes harm by its nature</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In terms of intellectual property, what must software demonstrate to qualify as permissible subject matter?

    <p>It must have utility, novelty, and nonobviousness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does John Stuart Mill attribute to free expression in a democratic society?

    <p>It is essential for discovering and understanding truth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is erroneously defined as information that spreads rapidly and is difficult to control?

    <p>Erroneous information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what context is an individual's anonymity not absolute?

    <p>Both A and B</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term best describes the general sentiments expressed by a target demographic based on their sharing behavior?

    <p>Sentiment analysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of relationship is characterized by individuals seeking utility from one another?

    <p>Friendship of Utility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the concept that describes the effect of constant surveillance on individual behavior and autonomy?

    <p>The Chilling Effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Helen Nissenbaum, what aspect of privacy is crucial for maintaining appropriate information flow?

    <p>Social context-specific norms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do the First and Fourth Amendments notably protect within digital societies?

    <p>Freedom from unreasonable search and seizure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Priscilla Regan argues that privacy rights should be considered as:

    <p>A social good</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the effect of digital surveillance on genuine human connection as per Charles Fried's concerns?

    <p>Self-censorship</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic defines a Friendship of Virtue?

    <p>Centered on appreciation of each other's virtues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the panoptic gaze in relation to digital societies?

    <p>The effect of being constantly watched</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Nissenbaum mean by transparency in information flow?

    <p>Visibility of shared information details</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to moderate voices in a climate dominated by extreme positions, according to recent observations?

    <p>They face harassment and self-censorship</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main ethical concern associated with anonymity in digital environments?

    <p>It can lead to harmful behaviors due to lack of accountability.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do distinctive identity conditions relate to digital environments?

    <p>They influence identity presentation and interaction in digital spaces.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What impact does abstraction have on digital interactions?

    <p>It increases opportunities for deception in exchanges.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Rachels, why is privacy important in social relationships?

    <p>It is essential for maintaining a variety of social relationships.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'scope' refer to in the context of digital communication?

    <p>The expansion and disconnect between content and its author.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Reproducibility in the digital domain primarily means what?

    <p>Digital content can be produced without loss of quality.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What potential issue arises from the range of abstracted systems?

    <p>It allows more room for deceptive practices.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a fundamental difference between data and metadata?

    <p>Data is raw information, while metadata describes that information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Hobbes believe about natural rights concerning intellectual property?

    <p>There is no natural right to IP.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does Locke's Labor Theory relate to personal ownership?

    <p>Labor is an extension of one's self.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a defining characteristic of rival sharing?

    <p>One person's use limits availability to others.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes extrinsic wrongs according to Locke?

    <p>They require social context to understand their harm.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is confiscatory theft in the context of Locke's labor theory?

    <p>Removing access to an individual's labor product.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does violating an individual's right to IP affect their economic opportunities?

    <p>It undermines their ability to control and profit from their creations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of claiming there is nothing intrinsically wrong with illegal copying?

    <p>It justifies unauthorized use of IP.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Locke argue is a consequence of seizing someone's labor product?

    <p>It leads to the enslavement of the laborer.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the prima facie obligation in a just society?

    <p>To follow property laws unless justified otherwise.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What dilemma does Robert Nozick pose regarding property rights?

    <p>One’s labor does not automatically grant rights over public property.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Under what conditions can copying be seen as non-confiscatory?

    <p>When the original creator doesn't lose access to their creation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does self-ownership play in Lockean Labor Theory?

    <p>It establishes rights to control one's labor and creations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is copying considered an extrinsic wrong?

    <p>It is harmful only due to social norms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason illegal copying of intellectual property (IP) is considered a prima facie wrong?

    <p>It deprives the owner of their legal rights.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following qualifies as an unconscionable law that would justify civil disobedience?

    <p>A law that compels individuals to act immorally, like harming innocents.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is NOT a valid justification for infringing on intellectual property rights?

    <p>You stand to gain economically.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which examples are included in trade secrecy protection?

    <p>Chemical formulas and recipes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect complicates the protection of software under traditional copyright laws?

    <p>Software contains both functional and expressive elements.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following phases of software development can be copyrighted?

    <p>Source code.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of a compiler in software development?

    <p>To translate high-level source code to machine language.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Can trade secrets be copyrighted?

    <p>No, they are protected under confidentiality agreements.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between prima facie obligation and civil disobedience?

    <p>Prima facie obligation refers to obeying laws unless they are unjust.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant risk associated with crowdsourcing knowledge production?

    <p>Information accuracy may compromise due to self-policing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes different approaches to filtering information in knowledge production?

    <p>Editing vs. censorship.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What constitutes civil disobedience regarding intellectual property laws?

    <p>Proving the laws compel immoral actions or support wrongful entities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key difference between source code and object code?

    <p>Source code is human-readable, while object code is machine-readable.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the exchange of information between entities that operate at the same level?

    <p>Peer-to-peer exchange</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes granularity in information exchange?

    <p>It defines the level of detail in the information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary principle of Natural Rights Property Theory?

    <p>Individuals own everything produced by their labor.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How long does copyright initially last for a work created by an individual author?

    <p>The lifetime of the author plus 50 years.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between patents and copyrights?

    <p>Patents protect inventions and last for a specific period, whereas copyrights protect creative works and last much longer.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes the relationship between ideas and copyright?

    <p>Expressions of ideas can be copyrighted, but not the ideas themselves.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a copyright infringement case, who bears the burden of proof?

    <p>The copyright holder.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary condition that must be met for a fair use claim to be considered valid?

    <p>Something significant must be added, creating a fundamentally new expression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Under what conditions does the Copyright Term Extension Act allow for an extended copyright duration?

    <p>For works created for hire and anonymous or pseudonymous works.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of fair use on the burden of proof in copyright cases?

    <p>It does not change the burden of proof at all.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements best describes the nature of copyright ownership?

    <p>Copyright does not imply ownership rights over the intellectual property.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes a vertical exchange of information?

    <p>Information moves up and down between different levels within the same organization.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does transparency in information practices aim to provide?

    <p>Openness regarding how data is collected and shared.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the underlying reason provided by Utilitarian Rights Property Theory for copyright protection?

    <p>To protect privacy rights and enhance overall societal welfare.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Ethical Issues in Information Technology

    • Distinctive Identity Conditions: How identity is formed and presented online, complicated by factors such as mediation and range, making it hard to recognize in digital spaces.
    • Anonymity: Hiding online identity, enabling harmful behavior due to lack of accountability, and potentially fostering different actions than in person.
    • Range: Less abstraction in systems leads to less deception and more empathy, but abstract systems can allow for deception.
    • Abstraction: The more abstract a system, the more opportunity for deception and rational self-interest.
    • Mediation: Internet communication uses complex sociotechnical systems, different from face-to-face interaction where biometrics are used.
    • Scope: Increased reach of information leads to less control by the author, potential misrepresentation, and plagiarism.
    • Reproducibility: Digital information is easily copied without loss of quality or value.

    Rachels' Thoughts on Information Flow

    • James Rachels argued that the nature of relationships changes based on exchanged information and privacy is necessary to maintain diverse relationships.

    Data vs. Metadata

    • Data: Raw, original content (photo, email).
    • Metadata: Information that describes data (photo time, email recipient).

    Erroneous Information

    • Incorrect information that spreads quickly and is challenging to control, causing harm and unfair treatment.

    Anonymity Context

    • Anonymity is not absolute—it depends on the context and the system mediating the interaction. (Online forums vs. social media)

    Misused Information

    • Unreliable information. Information useful in one context but inappropriate when used in another.

    Sentiment Analysis

    • Determining a target audience's feelings based on their communication.

    Privacy and Information Flow

    • Privacy is linked to control over the transparency (visibility) and granularity (detail) of shared information.

    Concerns about Digital Relationships

    • Cocking and Matthews express skepticism about authentic online friendships due to selective self-disclosure.
    • Charles Fried worried about surveillance undermining trust and genuine human connection.

    Aristotelian Definitions of Friendship

    • Friendship of Utility: Based on the benefits each party receives, often temporary.
    • Friendship of Pleasure: Based on mutual enjoyment of shared activities or interests.
    • Friendship of Virtue: Based on mutual appreciation and concern for each other's well-being.

    Surveillance and the Panopticon

    • Zumyaden and Blaire argued constant digital surveillance erodes privacy and autonomy, relating to Bentham's panopticon—a structure where constant observation affects behavior.
    • Panoptic gaze: Limits freedom through self-censorship, impacting the rule of law and potentially fostering extremism
    • The "Chilling Effect" on free thinking and self-expression leads to a dampening of diverse voices in democratic governance.

    Contextual Integrity (Nissenbaum)

    • Nissenbaum advocates for transparent information sharing norms that vary by context, aligning with social expectations.

    Constitutional Guarantees

    • First Amendment: Freedom of speech, press, and religion, impacting online communication.
    • Fourth Amendment: Protection from unreasonable searches, impacting online surveillance.

    Privacy as a Social Good (Reagan)

    • Reagan views privacy as a social good equivalent to security or efficiency, crucial for trust, association, and democracy.

    Information Flows

    • Horizontal: Peer-to-peer exchange within an organization.
    • Vertical: Intraorganizational exchange between different levels.
    • Inward-Outward: Interorganizational exchange between entities.

    Granularity and Transparency

    • Granularity: Level of detail in information (coarse vs. fine).
    • Transparency: Openness of practices and data usage.

    Property Right Theories

    • Natural Rights: Individuals own themselves, thus products of their labor.
    • Utilitarian: Property rights promote overall societal welfare.
    • Legal right granted to authors of original works.
    • Originates in the Constitution and Copyright Act of 1976.
    • Duration varies by authorship type (lifetime plus 50 years or 75/95/120 years from publication/creation).
    • Patents protect inventions (shorter duration).
    • Copyrights protect creative works (longer duration).
    • Ideas are not copyrightable, only their expression. Algorithms can be copyrightable once expressed.
    • The burden of proof rests on the copyright holder, who must show striking resemblance, opportunity to copy, and the infringing party’s access.

    Fair Use

    • Fair use is an affirmative defense, meaning it’s a claim to violate copyright law, shifts burden of proof to defendant.
    • Four fair use factors determine acceptable use.

    State of Nature (Hobbes and Locke)

    • Hobbes: State of nature is nasty, brutish, short, no moral or legal obligations.
    • Locke: State of nature allows for ownership through mixing labor with resources; supports Lockean Labor Theory.

    Personal Sovereignty and Ownership

    • Personal sovereignty means individuals own themselves and their labor. Lockean labor theory extends this to ownership in creation.

    Confiscatory Theft

    • Confiscatory theft is taking ownership of something, denying access and is a form of slavery.

    Rival vs. Non-rival Sharing

    • Rival: One person's use limits others'.
    • Non-rival: Multiple can use without diminishing it.

    Justifications for IP Infringement

    • Arguments often cite the lack of harm with non-confiscatory copying and that illegality is the only reason it's bad.

    Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Wrongs

    • Intrinsic wrongs are inherently harmful (e.g killing), extrinsic ones are based on rules.

    Harm from Limiting Self-Expression

    • Restricting IP rights undermines economic opportunities and innovation.

    Prima Facie Obligation and Unconscionable Laws

    • Prima facie is to obey just laws, unless compelling moral reasons exist. Unconscionable laws are too harmful to be obeyed. Civil disobedience only justifies extreme actions.

    Reasons NOT to Infringe on IP

    • Profiting from infringement is not justification, although rational self interest is not always invalid.

    Open Source and Creative Commons

    • Provide alternatives to IP infringement.
    • Trade secrecy deals with confidential business information.
    • Copyright protects published creative works.
    • Software is a unique case combining functional and expressive aspects.

    Software Development Phases

    • Algorithms (not copyrightable): Step-by-step methods.
    • Source code (copyrightable): Program in a programming language.
    • Object code (copyrightable): Machine-readable program after compilation.
    • Trade secrets are not copyrightable, protected by confidentiality agreements.

    Knowledge Production Methods

    • Traditional: Expert-led filtering.
    • Crowdsourced: User-based collaboration and filtering.

    Filtering vs. Censorship

    • Filtering surfaces reliable information, censorship restricts harmful information.

    Mill on Free Expression

    • Mill emphasizes the importance of free expression for discovering truth, understanding ideas, and preventing the stagnation of ideas.

    Mill and Democracy

    • Mill's emphasis on free expression is essential for a functioning democracy.

    Expiration of IP Protection

    • Expired IP enters the public domain, or trade secrets exposed lose protection.

    Offense Principle

    • Restrictions on incitement to violence (intrinsically harmful), but not always on offensive speech.

    Trade Secrets in Court

    • Trade secrets must establish novelty, economic investment, and above-average efforts to remain secret.

    Patent Requirements

    • Must be novel, useful, and non-obvious.

    Unjust Law and Prima Facie Obligation

    • Unconscionable laws are those forcing immoral acts or supporting immoral institutions. Civil disobedience is rare, not justifiable in copyright issues.

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    Description

    Explore the complex ethical considerations surrounding identity, anonymity, and mediation in information technology. This quiz delves into how digital interactions can influence behavior and perception, and the implications of abstraction and reproducibility in online spaces.

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