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Questions and Answers
What percentage of nitrogen (N) is found in the given chemical composition?
What percentage of nitrogen (N) is found in the given chemical composition?
Which of the following health issues is associated with oxidative stress?
Which of the following health issues is associated with oxidative stress?
What is one of the roles of water in biological systems?
What is one of the roles of water in biological systems?
Which of the following correctly describes the nature of water in terms of acid-base behavior?
Which of the following correctly describes the nature of water in terms of acid-base behavior?
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In the hierarchy of living organisms, what sequence follows the creation of supramolecular complexes?
In the hierarchy of living organisms, what sequence follows the creation of supramolecular complexes?
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Which of the following is classified as a macro-element?
Which of the following is classified as a macro-element?
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Which bio-element is considered an ultra trace element?
Which bio-element is considered an ultra trace element?
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How do lipids relate to a specific medical condition?
How do lipids relate to a specific medical condition?
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Which essential trace element is important for hemoglobin production?
Which essential trace element is important for hemoglobin production?
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What is the primary role of bio-elements in living organisms?
What is the primary role of bio-elements in living organisms?
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Which of the following is NOT categorized as a macro-element?
Which of the following is NOT categorized as a macro-element?
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Which combination of bio-elements refers to essential ultra trace elements?
Which combination of bio-elements refers to essential ultra trace elements?
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Which of the following correctly pairs a biochemistry component with its associated medical condition?
Which of the following correctly pairs a biochemistry component with its associated medical condition?
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What defines a strong chemical bond?
What defines a strong chemical bond?
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Which of the following is considered a weak chemical bond?
Which of the following is considered a weak chemical bond?
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What is the main characteristic of chemical isomers?
What is the main characteristic of chemical isomers?
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Which functional group is characterized by the formula R-C=O?
Which functional group is characterized by the formula R-C=O?
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How is pH defined mathematically?
How is pH defined mathematically?
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Which of the following statement describes weak acids accurately?
Which of the following statement describes weak acids accurately?
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Which functional group includes R-NH2?
Which functional group includes R-NH2?
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What type of isomerism is represented by cis and trans isomers?
What type of isomerism is represented by cis and trans isomers?
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What is the value of pOH when the hydroxide ion concentration is $4.0 \times 10^{-10}$?
What is the value of pOH when the hydroxide ion concentration is $4.0 \times 10^{-10}$?
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When a weak acid is exactly half neutralized, what is the relationship between the concentrations of the protonated and unprotonated forms?
When a weak acid is exactly half neutralized, what is the relationship between the concentrations of the protonated and unprotonated forms?
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Which equation correctly describes the pH of a buffer solution containing acetic acid and sodium acetate?
Which equation correctly describes the pH of a buffer solution containing acetic acid and sodium acetate?
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If the pKa of an acid is 4.8 and the concentrations of acetic acid and sodium acetate are equal, what is the pH?
If the pKa of an acid is 4.8 and the concentrations of acetic acid and sodium acetate are equal, what is the pH?
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What is the ion product constant of water (Kw) at 25 degrees Celsius?
What is the ion product constant of water (Kw) at 25 degrees Celsius?
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What pH would a solution have if it is buffered well and consists of 400 mM acetic acid and 400 mM sodium acetate?
What pH would a solution have if it is buffered well and consists of 400 mM acetic acid and 400 mM sodium acetate?
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The term 'residue' in biochemistry commonly refers to which of the following?
The term 'residue' in biochemistry commonly refers to which of the following?
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When the concentration ratio of [A-] to [HA] is 1:10, what is the relationship of pH to pKa?
When the concentration ratio of [A-] to [HA] is 1:10, what is the relationship of pH to pKa?
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What is the normal concentration range for chloride in mmol/L?
What is the normal concentration range for chloride in mmol/L?
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Which condition is often associated with hypochloremia?
Which condition is often associated with hypochloremia?
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Which buffer system exhibits the weakest buffering capacity in the blood?
Which buffer system exhibits the weakest buffering capacity in the blood?
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What role does bone tissue play in regulating blood pH?
What role does bone tissue play in regulating blood pH?
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Which physiological condition can influence homeostasis of H+ ions?
Which physiological condition can influence homeostasis of H+ ions?
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What is the concentration relationship between bicarbonate and carbonic acid in physiological conditions?
What is the concentration relationship between bicarbonate and carbonic acid in physiological conditions?
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What is a potential consequence of the absorption of cations by bone tissue?
What is a potential consequence of the absorption of cations by bone tissue?
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How does the body adjust pH through respiration?
How does the body adjust pH through respiration?
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Study Notes
Essential Bio-elements
- Macro-elements are required in relatively large amounts, while trace elements are needed in much smaller quantities.
- Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen are the most abundant elements in living organisms.
- Trace elements such as iron, copper, and zinc play crucial roles in enzymatic processes and maintaining cellular function.
- Heavy metals like lead and cadmium can accumulate in the liver, posing potential health risks.
Hierarchy of Living Organisms
- Monomers combine to form macromolecules through condensation reactions, which release water.
- Macromolecules assemble into supramolecular complexes, eventually leading to the formation of organelles.
- Organelles contribute to the creation of cells, which then organize into tissues, organs, and body systems.
Water
- Water's polarity, asymmetrical tetrahedral structure, and hydrogen bonding capabilities contribute to its unique properties.
- It serves as a solvent, temperature regulator, transportation medium, pH balancer, and participant in chemical reactions.
Strong Chemical Bonds
- Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons between atoms.
- Ionic bonds are formed through electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.
Weak Chemical Bonds
- Hydrogen bonds, van der Waals forces, and hydrophobic interactions play significant roles in biological structures and functions.
- They influence protein folding, cell membrane integrity, and the maintenance of various biological processes.
Functional Groups
- Functional groups impart specific chemical properties to molecules.
- Examples include hydroxyl (R-OH), aldehyde (R-C=H), ketone (R-C--R), sulfhydryl (R-SH), and carboxyl (R-C-OH).
Chemical Isomers
- Isomers share the same chemical formula but differ in their structural arrangement.
- Structural isomers have different atom or functional group arrangements, while stereoisomers exhibit different spatial arrangements.
pH
- Sorensen introduced the term 'pH' in 1909, representing the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration.
- Low pH values indicate high hydrogen ion concentration, corresponding to acidic conditions.
- High pH values indicate low hydrogen ion concentration, indicating alkaline conditions.
Buffers
- Buffering is the ability of weak acids and their conjugate bases to resist pH changes upon the addition of acids or bases.
- Common laboratory buffers include MES, HEPES, inorganic orthophosphate, and Tris.
Chloride
- Chloride is a crucial electrolyte found in the body, typically present in the range of 99-109 mmol/L.
- Imbalances can lead to hypochloremia (low chloride levels) or hyperchloremia (high chloride levels).
Acid-Base Balance
- Maintaining a stable hydrogen ion concentration is essential for physiological processes.
- The pH of blood typically ranges from 7.35 to 7.45.
- Maintaining this delicate balance involves multiple buffering systems.
Important Buffer Systems
- The bicarbonate/carbonic acid buffer system is crucial in blood.
- Protein buffer systems, including hemoglobin, play a significant role.
- Bone tissue acts as a buffering system by absorbing hydrogen ions and releasing cations.
Respiration Regulation
- The respiratory system helps regulate blood pH by adjusting the rate and depth of breathing to alter carbon dioxide levels.
- This process influences the equilibrium of the bicarbonate/carbonic acid buffer system.
Renal Regulation
- The kidneys play a vital role in regulating blood pH by controlling hydrogen ion excretion and bicarbonate reabsorption.
- The processes occur in the proximal and distal tubules of the nephrons.
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Description
Explore the crucial macro and trace elements required for life, and their functions in biological systems. Understand how these elements contribute to the hierarchy of living organisms from macromolecules to body systems. Learn about the unique properties of water and its role in sustaining life.
