Errors in Reasoning and Research in Criminology
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary risk of overgeneralization in research?

  • It encourages a detailed understanding of cases.
  • It allows for accurate predictions of outcomes.
  • It promotes the consideration of counter-evidence.
  • It leads to assumptions based on limited observations. (correct)

    • Which research method focuses on understanding individual behaviors and perspectives?

  • Exploratory Research
  • Qualitative Methods (correct)
  • Quantitative Methods
  • Descriptive Research

    • What best describes evaluation research?

  • Examines relationships between different variables.
  • Tests the efficacy of policies or interventions. (correct)
  • Defines and measures social issues without focusing on causation.
  • Investigates poorly understood social phenomena.

    • Which misconception is associated with selective observation in research?

    <p>Focusing solely on evidence that supports pre-existing beliefs. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of exploratory research?

    <p>It aims to explore topics that lack prior research. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which step in the research process involves summarizing existing knowledge on a topic?

    <p>Conducting a Literature Review (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common outcome of resistance to change in research?

    <p>Rejection of new evidence due to established beliefs. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best defines explanatory research?

    <p>It identifies causal relationships between variables. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does measurement validity assess in research?

    <p>Whether a concept is measured correctly (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of validity ensures that research findings can be generalized to a larger population?

    <p>Generalizability (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What ethical issue was prominent in Milgram's Obedience Study?

    <p>Participants were misled about the nature of the experiment (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment, what led to ethical violations?

    <p>Voluntary participation of prisoners was compromised (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)?

    <p>To approve research projects for ethical compliance (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does operationalization refer to in research?

    <p>Choosing how to measure a defined concept (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which level of measurement involves numerical values but lacks a true zero?

    <p>Interval (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between reliability and validity in research measurement?

    <p>Reliability assesses consistency, validity assesses accuracy of measurements (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What ethical principle ensures participants understand what they are agreeing to in research?

    <p>Informed consent (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What ethical violation was present in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study?

    <p>Participants were subjected to deception and harm (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Flashcards

    Overgeneralization

    Assuming something is true for all cases based on limited observations.

    Selective Observation

    Noticing only evidence that supports personal beliefs.

    Illogical Reasoning

    Jumping to conclusions without valid logic.

    Resistance to Change

    Rejecting new information due to personal beliefs or authority.

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    Descriptive Research

    Defines and measures social phenomena without exploring cause and effect.

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    Exploratory Research

    Used for topics that are not well understood.

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    Quantitative Methods

    Collects numerical data and uses statistics.

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    Research Process Steps

    Identifying questions, reviewing literature, choosing methods, collecting and analyzing data.

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    Measurement Validity

    Determines if an assessment accurately measures what it's intended to measure.

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    Generalizability

    The extent to which results from a sample can be applied to a larger population.

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    Causal Validity

    The ability to confidently assert that one factor caused another.

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    Sampling Bias

    When a sample is not representative, leading to inaccurate results.

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    Ethical Issues in Research

    Considerations around protecting subjects’ rights and ensuring informed consent.

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    Milgram’s Obedience Study

    Study showing how people obey authority figures despite causing harm.

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    Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment

    Investigated how assigned roles affect behavior, revealing abusive dynamics.

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    Informed Consent

    Participants must understand what they are agreeing to in research.

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    Reliability vs. Validity

    Reliability is consistent results; validity is accurate measurement.

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    Levels of Measurement

    Different scales for categorizing data: nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio.

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    Study Notes

    Errors in Reasoning and Research

    • Overgeneralization: Assuming a limited observation applies to all cases. Example: Finding 60% of juveniles in a city committed theft, and concluding all juveniles are thieves.
    • Selective Observation: Only noticing evidence supporting personal beliefs. Example: Believing all criminals come from impoverished backgrounds, ignoring wealthy criminals.
    • Illogical Reasoning: Jumping to conclusions without valid logic. Example: Assuming crime is increasing just because more news reports about it.
    • Resistance to Change: Rejecting new information due to existing beliefs, tradition, or authority. Example: Refusing to believe crime rates are dropping, despite evidence.

    Types of Criminological Research

    • Descriptive Research: Defines and measures phenomena without investigating cause-and-effect. Example: Counting youth victims of violence.
    • Exploratory Research: Used for topics poorly understood. Example: Examining gang-community interactions.
    • Explanatory Research: Studies relationships between variables to understand causation. Example: Investigating if childhood neglect predicts future criminal behavior.
    • Evaluation Research: Tests policies/interventions to assess effectiveness. Example: Determining if anti-bullying programs work in schools.

    Research Methods in Criminal Justice

    • Quantitative Methods: Use numerical data and statistics. Examples: Crime rates, surveys.
    • Qualitative Methods: Understand behavior/perspectives through interviews and observation.
    • Mixed Methods: Combines quantitative and qualitative approaches.

    Steps in the Research Process

    • 1. Identifying a Research Question: Defining the topic to study.
    • 2. Conducting a Literature Review: Reviewing past research related to the topic.
    • 3. Choosing a Research Method: Selecting data collection methods (e.g., surveys).
    • 4. Collecting Data: Gathering information using chosen methods.
    • 5. Analyzing Data: Identifying patterns and drawing conclusions.
    • 6. Reporting Findings: Sharing results through publications or presentations.

    Types of Validity in Research

    • Measurement Validity: Ensuring the measure captures the intended concept accurately. Example: Defining "aggression": # of fights? Arrests? Self-report information?
    • Generalizability: The extent to which findings apply to a larger population.
    • Causal Validity: Demonstrating a confident cause-and-effect relationship between variables.

    Common Challenges in Research

    • Sampling Bias: Using a sample that isn't representative of the larger population.
    • Ethical Issues: Ensuring research is conducted ethically protecting subject rights.

    Ethical Issues in Research (Key Studies)

    • Milgram's Obedience Study: Participants believed they were shocking a person, but they weren't. Violated ethics via deception and potential emotional distress.
    • Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment: Assigned college students to roles, resulting in abusive guard behavior. Ethical concerns included extreme psychological harm and lack of informed consent.
    • Tuskegee Syphilis Study: Untreated syphilis in African American men, despite treatment availability. Ethical problems: Lack of consent, deception, and harm.
    • Humphreys' Tearoom Trade Study: Secretly observed and interviewed men in public restrooms for sexual behavior. Violated privacy and lack of informed consent.

    Key Ethical Guidelines for Research Today

    • Voluntary Participation: Participants cannot be forced to participate.
    • Informed Consent: Participants must understand the research and agree to participate.
    • Confidentiality & Anonymity: Protecting participant identities.
    • Minimizing Harm: Avoiding unnecessary risk to participants.
    • Institutional Review Boards (IRBs): Committees that approve research to ensure ethical standards.

    Conceptualization and Measurement

    • Conceptualization: Defining a concept. Example: Defining violent crime.
    • Operationalization: Deciding how to measure a concept. Example: Measuring violent crime using arrest data.
    • Levels of Measurement:
      • Nominal: Categories (e.g., race).
      • Ordinal: Ranked Categories (e.g., low, medium, high crime areas).
      • Interval: Numerical values with meaningful differences but no true zero (e.g., IQ scores).
      • Ratio: Numerical values with meaningful differences and a true zero (e.g., number of arrests).
    • Reliability vs. Validity: Reliability: Consistency in measurement. Validity: Accurate measurement of intended concept.

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    Description

    This quiz focuses on common errors in reasoning and research methodologies related to criminology. It covers overgeneralization, selective observation, illogical reasoning, and resistance to change. Additionally, it explores different types of criminological research, including descriptive and exploratory approaches.

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