Epidemiological Study Designs

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary aim of thematic analysis in qualitative research?

To validate hypotheses formed before data collection

To compare different datasets for statistical significance

To quantify data based on numerical assessments

To organize and report main themes within data (correct)

Which aspect differentiates thematic analysis from other qualitative methods?

It requires prior knowledge of the topics being studied

It focuses on both implicit and explicit ideas (correct)

It involves a rigid coding framework without flexibility

It emphasizes only explicit phrases in the data

What role does the researcher play in thematic analysis?

The researcher interprets data and develops codes for themes (correct)

The researcher only counts words and phrases without interpretation

The researcher must remain entirely objective and uninvolved

The researcher provides a summary without analyzing the data

Which of the following statements about thematic analysis is true?

Thematic analysis enables drawing insights directly from the data Signup and view all the answers

According to the sources, what is a key benefit of using thematic analysis?

It can uncover unexpected insights from qualitative data Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of functioning does social functioning specifically refer to?

Ability to navigate social contexts Signup and view all the answers

Which phrase best describes specificity in medical testing?

The proportion of correct negative classifications Signup and view all the answers

What does Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) primarily evaluate?

Organ function and blood flow Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following would NOT be considered a component of social functioning?

Therapeutic interventions Signup and view all the answers

What types of individuals are discussed in relation to sensitivity?

Low-sensitive, medium-sensitive, and high-sensitive Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of using a radioactive tracer in SPECT imaging?

To assess organ functionality Signup and view all the answers

In the context of specificity, what would indicate a poorly performing diagnostic test?

High false positive rate Signup and view all the answers

Which type of medical imaging uses gamma rays for evaluation?

SPECT Signup and view all the answers

What is the main feature of a cluster randomised trial (CRT)?

Groups or clusters are assigned to interventions. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key reason for using CRTs rather than individual randomisation?

When interventions are targeted at a group level. Signup and view all the answers

What must be accounted for due to the similarity of outcomes within clusters in a CRT?

Adjustments in sample size and data analysis. Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a non-random misclassification that could affect data collection accuracy?

Instrument bias Signup and view all the answers

What defines a cohort study?

Following individuals with specific characteristics over time. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes mental capacity?

An individual's ability to understand information for informed choices Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes a prospective cohort study from a retrospective cohort study?

Prospective studies follow participants into the future. Signup and view all the answers

What does the updated MRC framework include as one of its key elements?

Implementation Signup and view all the answers

What is co-production in the context of research?

A collaborative process involving various stakeholders. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of cohort study looks back at past exposures?

Retrospective cohort study. Signup and view all the answers

What is social desirability bias?

The tendency to answer questions in a socially acceptable manner Signup and view all the answers

In which context is mental capacity typically assessed?

Clinical and legal contexts Signup and view all the answers

Why are CRTs often used in public health contexts?

They evaluate interventions at a large scale in real world settings. Signup and view all the answers

What does recall bias refer to in the context of research?

Inaccurate memory recall by participants about past events Signup and view all the answers

Why is the assessment of mental capacity important?

To establish ethical parameters in treatment consent Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a type of bias mentioned in regards to data collection errors?

Selection bias Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary principle emphasized by the declaration adopted in 1964 regarding research ethics?

Respect for individuals and informed consent Signup and view all the answers

Which type of diagnostic interview consists of a fixed set of questions based on standardized criteria?

Structured interview Signup and view all the answers

What does blinding in clinical trials primarily aim to achieve?

Prevent bias resulting from participants knowing their group assignments Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of research ethics is emphasized for study conduct and reporting?

Transparency Signup and view all the answers

Which type of diagnostic interview allows for exploration based on clients' responses?

Semi-structured interview Signup and view all the answers

Why is it essential to prioritize participants' well-being over scientific interests in research?

To avoid ethical violations that harm individuals Signup and view all the answers

Which key benefit do interventions proven effective during studies provide?

They offer tested treatment options to all study participants. Signup and view all the answers

In which type of clinical trial design is patient assignment to study groups randomized?

Double and triple blinding Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of focus groups in mental health research?

To elicit information about service needs and impact Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)?

A non-invasive technique that detects changes in blood oxygenation Signup and view all the answers

What limitation is associated with fMRI regarding temporal resolution?

It is limited due to delayed hemodynamic response Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately defines a genome?

The complete set of genetic material within an organism's cells Signup and view all the answers

In qualitative research, what role does a moderator play in focus groups?

They lead structured open-ended discussions Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the genome for an organism?

It contains all information for development and growth Signup and view all the answers

Which cognitive processes have been investigated using fMRI?

Cognitive processes like memory and language Signup and view all the answers

What is a common misconception about focus group methodology?

Focus groups are ineffective in eliciting qualitative insights Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Case Control Study

A type of observational study to examine factors linked to diseases or outcomes
Compares a group with the outcome (cases) to a similar group without it (controls)
Researchers look for prior exposures more common in the cases compared to the controls

Cluster Randomised Trial

A randomised controlled trial where groups (clusters) are assigned to treatments, not individuals
Suitable when interventions are applied to groups (e.g., families, institutions)
Useful for evaluating interventions at a population level

Co-production

Collaborative research with shared power among researchers, clinicians, and service users
Joint decisions, shared research creation, and involvement from start to finish

Cohort Study

Observational study following individuals with shared characteristics/exposures over time
Examining their influence on specific outcomes
Can be prospective (starting with exposure, tracking forward) or retrospective (examining past exposures and outcomes)

Confidence Intervals

A statistical range, from sample data, likely to contain a population parameter
Measures uncertainty in sample estimates, to infer about the population
Wider intervals needed for higher confidence levels, and vice-versa

Confounding

A third variable that distorts the relationship between an exposure and an outcome
Associated with both the exposure and the outcome
Example: diet in an exercise/weight loss study

Construct Validity

Assessing how well a measure represents an abstract theoretical concept
Three types: convergent (related concepts), discriminant (unrelated concepts), and structural (single factor)

Copy Number Variation (CNV)

Variation in the number of specific DNA segment copies between individuals
Involves duplications, deletions, etc., affecting genome portions
Impacts health, disease, and evolutionary biology.

Criterion Validity

How well a test/measure correlates with an established, valid outcome
Two types: concurrent (measure is related to a concurrent outcome), and predictive (test predicts future outcomes)

Declaration of Helsinki

Ethical guidelines for medical research with human participants
Focuses on respecting individuals, informed consent, and participant well-being

Diagnostic Interview

Conversation between a professional and patient/client for assessing psychological conditions
Structured (using standardised criteria), semi-structured (exploring details), or unstructured (using professional knowledge)
Used to diagnose mental health issues

Double and Triple Blinding

Techniques to prevent bias in clinical trials
Participants (Single), participants and researchers (Double), and participants, researchers and analysts (Triple), are unaware of study group assignments

EEG brain signals linked to specific events (e.g., seeing, hearing, decisions)
Different parts of the ERP reflect various brain processes, such as, early sensory perception, updating memory.

Exposures and Outcomes

Exposures (predict outcome), also called risk factors or independent variables
Outcomes (what's measured), also called response variables or dependent variables

Feasibility and Pilot Trials

Feasibility trials assess if a larger study is possible
Pilot trials test the procedures of a future, larger study

Floor and Ceiling Effects

Statistical issues when many participants have the highest or lowest scores
Floor effects: scores cluster near the minimum possible; Ceiling effects: scores cluster near the maximum

Focus Group

Qualitative research method with a facilitator leading group discussions.
Used to learn about attitudes, experiences and opinions
Useful in mental health research for understanding consumer satisfaction and needs for mental health services

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Non-invasive technique for measuring brain activity
Detects changes in blood oxygenation related to neural activity
Useful for investigating cognitive processes (e.g., memory, language) and clinical assessments

Genome

Complete genetic material in an organism's cells; located on chromosomes
Contains info for development, function, and growth
Helpful in understanding and treating mental illnesses

Heritability

Proportion of a trait's variation within a population due to genetic differences
Doesn't explain specific genetic causes but indicates genetic contribution

Hill's Postulates

Framework for evaluating causality in research.
Nine factors to consider for determining whether an exposure leads to an outcome

Implementation Research

Studies the use, integration, and sustainability of evidence-based interventions
Focuses on real-world settings, healthcare systems, communities, etc.

Process where participants understand the study (purpose, risks, benefits, alternatives)
Voluntary participation based on complete understanding

Inter-rater Reliability

Agreement between two or more raters assessing a phenomenon
Use Cohen's kappa to assess; a score of 0.75 or more suggests good inter-rater reliability

Likert Scale

Method for measuring survey responses with a range of points to indicate positive, neutral, or negative responses

Measurement Bias

Inaccurate measurement of a study variable (exposure or outcome)
Random or non-random misclassification (distorts results, e.g. observer, recall, instrument biases)

Mental Capacity

An individual's ability to understand and make informed choices
Involves coherent cognitive processes for decision-making, reasoning, communication

MRC Framework

Framework developed by the Medical Research Council for developing and evaluating complex interventions
Covers feasibility, evaluation, implementation, and development

Participant Observation

Qualitative research method for data collection
Observing behaviour and phenomena, not easily obtained by interviews or standardised measures

Patient and Public Involvement (PPI)

Collaborative approach engaging patients, carers, and the public
Enhances research quality and relevance

Phenomenology

Studying subjective experiences and consciousness

Power Calculation

Statistical method to determine sample size required to detect an effect
Prevents under/overpowered studies

Pragmatic Trial

Clinical trial evaluating intervention effectiveness in real-world settings
Focused on generalizability, not ideal conditions

Primary Hypothesis

Central prediction of a study, specifying sample, predictor, and outcome variables
Used for statistical testing and result interpretation in research

Purposive Sampling

Selecting specific individuals based on certain criteria for analysis (e.g., gaming addiction)

Quality of Life (QoL)

Individual's perception of their position in life
Multidimensional concept encompassing physical, psychological, social, and environmental factors

Random Sampling

Minimising bias by randomly selecting participants from the population.

Randomisation

Randomly assigning participants to different groups to avoid bias
Ensures equal chance of being in any group (e.g., treatment and control)

Randomised Controlled Trial (RCT)

Gold standard for evaluating cause and effect links
Participants randomly assigned to groups to test an intervention

Recovery Measure

Tools assessing an individual's recovery journey in mental health
Includes subjective experience and objective outcomes (e.g., hope, employment)

Representativeness

Extent to which a sample reflects the larger population, ensuring study findings are generalisable (applicable to broader population)

Research Impact

The effect of research beyond academia (economic, societal, cultural, policy)
Involves translating research findings into real-world outcomes and positive changes

Screening Tool

Standardised instruments for identifying individuals at risk of a mental health condition
Used to detect symptoms early, facilitating early intervention or referral

Selection Bias

Error in recruitment stage leading to unrepresentative sample, limiting generalizability
Sampling bias, self-selection bias, and attrition bias are causes for bias

Semi-structured Interview

Qualitative research using an interview guide with open and closed questions
Allows for discovery while maintaining structure, exploration of individual's experiences

Sensitivity

Ability of a measure to accurately identify individuals with a characteristic (or trait)

Ability to navigate different social contexts (relationships, family life, work)
Includes social skills, communication, and emotion regulation

Specificity

Proportion of negative cases correctly identified
Shows how well a test/measure excludes those not having the characteristic (or trait)

SPECT (Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography)

Medical imaging technique using radioactive tracers to evaluate organ function and blood flow

Stratification

Dividing a population into groups (strata) based on specific characteristics
Stratified sampling involves selecting samples independently from each stratum

Test-Retest Reliability

Assessing measurement stability across time

Thematic Analysis

Method for analyzing qualitative data to identify, analyse, and report themes
Focuses on implicit and explicit ideas, developing codes to represent themes

Studying That Suits You

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Description

Explore various epidemiological study designs including case control studies, cluster randomized trials, co-production approaches, and cohort studies. This quiz will test your understanding of how these methods are used to analyze health outcomes and collaborative research. Dive into the nuances and applications of each study type.