Epidemiological Study Designs

Case Control Study

• A type of observational study to examine factors linked to diseases or outcomes
• Compares a group with the outcome (cases) to a similar group without it (controls)
• Researchers look for prior exposures more common in the cases compared to the controls

Cluster Randomised Trial

• A randomised controlled trial where groups (clusters) are assigned to treatments, not individuals
• Suitable when interventions are applied to groups (e.g., families, institutions)
• Useful for evaluating interventions at a population level

Co-production

• Collaborative research with shared power among researchers, clinicians, and service users
• Joint decisions, shared research creation, and involvement from start to finish

Cohort Study

• Observational study following individuals with shared characteristics/exposures over time
• Examining their influence on specific outcomes
• Can be prospective (starting with exposure, tracking forward) or retrospective (examining past exposures and outcomes)

Confidence Intervals

• A statistical range, from sample data, likely to contain a population parameter
• Measures uncertainty in sample estimates, to infer about the population
• Wider intervals needed for higher confidence levels, and vice-versa

Confounding

• A third variable that distorts the relationship between an exposure and an outcome
• Associated with both the exposure and the outcome
• Example: diet in an exercise/weight loss study

Construct Validity

• Assessing how well a measure represents an abstract theoretical concept
• Three types: convergent (related concepts), discriminant (unrelated concepts), and structural (single factor)

Copy Number Variation (CNV)

• Variation in the number of specific DNA segment copies between individuals
• Involves duplications, deletions, etc., affecting genome portions
• Impacts health, disease, and evolutionary biology.

Criterion Validity

• How well a test/measure correlates with an established, valid outcome
• Two types: concurrent (measure is related to a concurrent outcome), and predictive (test predicts future outcomes)

Declaration of Helsinki

• Ethical guidelines for medical research with human participants
• Focuses on respecting individuals, informed consent, and participant well-being

Diagnostic Interview

• Conversation between a professional and patient/client for assessing psychological conditions
• Structured (using standardised criteria), semi-structured (exploring details), or unstructured (using professional knowledge)
• Used to diagnose mental health issues

Double and Triple Blinding

• Techniques to prevent bias in clinical trials
• Participants (Single), participants and researchers (Double), and participants, researchers and analysts (Triple), are unaware of study group assignments

Event-Related Potentials (ERPs)

• EEG brain signals linked to specific events (e.g., seeing, hearing, decisions)
• Different parts of the ERP reflect various brain processes, such as, early sensory perception, updating memory.

Exposures and Outcomes

• Exposures (predict outcome), also called risk factors or independent variables
• Outcomes (what's measured), also called response variables or dependent variables

Feasibility and Pilot Trials

• Feasibility trials assess if a larger study is possible
• Pilot trials test the procedures of a future, larger study

Floor and Ceiling Effects

• Statistical issues when many participants have the highest or lowest scores
• Floor effects: scores cluster near the minimum possible; Ceiling effects: scores cluster near the maximum

Focus Group

• Qualitative research method with a facilitator leading group discussions.
• Used to learn about attitudes, experiences and opinions
• Useful in mental health research for understanding consumer satisfaction and needs for mental health services

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

• Non-invasive technique for measuring brain activity
• Detects changes in blood oxygenation related to neural activity
• Useful for investigating cognitive processes (e.g., memory, language) and clinical assessments

Genome

• Complete genetic material in an organism's cells; located on chromosomes
• Contains info for development, function, and growth
• Helpful in understanding and treating mental illnesses

Heritability

• Proportion of a trait's variation within a population due to genetic differences
• Doesn't explain specific genetic causes but indicates genetic contribution

Hill's Postulates

• Framework for evaluating causality in research.
• Nine factors to consider for determining whether an exposure leads to an outcome

Implementation Research

• Studies the use, integration, and sustainability of evidence-based interventions
• Focuses on real-world settings, healthcare systems, communities, etc.

Informed Consent

• Process where participants understand the study (purpose, risks, benefits, alternatives)
• Voluntary participation based on complete understanding

Inter-rater Reliability

• Agreement between two or more raters assessing a phenomenon
• Use Cohen's kappa to assess; a score of 0.75 or more suggests good inter-rater reliability

Likert Scale

• Method for measuring survey responses with a range of points to indicate positive, neutral, or negative responses

Measurement Bias

• Inaccurate measurement of a study variable (exposure or outcome)
• Random or non-random misclassification (distorts results, e.g. observer, recall, instrument biases)

Mental Capacity

• An individual's ability to understand and make informed choices
• Involves coherent cognitive processes for decision-making, reasoning, communication

MRC Framework

• Framework developed by the Medical Research Council for developing and evaluating complex interventions
• Covers feasibility, evaluation, implementation, and development

Participant Observation

• Qualitative research method for data collection
• Observing behaviour and phenomena, not easily obtained by interviews or standardised measures

Patient and Public Involvement (PPI)

• Collaborative approach engaging patients, carers, and the public
• Enhances research quality and relevance

Phenomenology

• Studying subjective experiences and consciousness

Power Calculation

• Statistical method to determine sample size required to detect an effect
• Prevents under/overpowered studies

Pragmatic Trial

• Clinical trial evaluating intervention effectiveness in real-world settings
• Focused on generalizability, not ideal conditions

Primary Hypothesis

• Central prediction of a study, specifying sample, predictor, and outcome variables
• Used for statistical testing and result interpretation in research

Purposive Sampling

• Selecting specific individuals based on certain criteria for analysis (e.g., gaming addiction)

Quality of Life (QoL)

• Individual's perception of their position in life
• Multidimensional concept encompassing physical, psychological, social, and environmental factors

Random Sampling

• Minimising bias by randomly selecting participants from the population.

Randomisation

• Randomly assigning participants to different groups to avoid bias
• Ensures equal chance of being in any group (e.g., treatment and control)

Randomised Controlled Trial (RCT)

• Gold standard for evaluating cause and effect links
• Participants randomly assigned to groups to test an intervention

Recovery Measure

• Tools assessing an individual's recovery journey in mental health
• Includes subjective experience and objective outcomes (e.g., hope, employment)

Representativeness

• Extent to which a sample reflects the larger population, ensuring study findings are generalisable (applicable to broader population)

Research Impact

• The effect of research beyond academia (economic, societal, cultural, policy)
• Involves translating research findings into real-world outcomes and positive changes

Screening Tool

• Standardised instruments for identifying individuals at risk of a mental health condition
• Used to detect symptoms early, facilitating early intervention or referral

Selection Bias

• Error in recruitment stage leading to unrepresentative sample, limiting generalizability
• Sampling bias, self-selection bias, and attrition bias are causes for bias

Semi-structured Interview

• Qualitative research using an interview guide with open and closed questions
• Allows for discovery while maintaining structure, exploration of individual's experiences

Sensitivity

• Ability of a measure to accurately identify individuals with a characteristic (or trait)

Social Functioning

• Ability to navigate different social contexts (relationships, family life, work)
• Includes social skills, communication, and emotion regulation

Specificity

• Proportion of negative cases correctly identified
• Shows how well a test/measure excludes those not having the characteristic (or trait)

SPECT (Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography)

• Medical imaging technique using radioactive tracers to evaluate organ function and blood flow

Stratification

• Dividing a population into groups (strata) based on specific characteristics
• Stratified sampling involves selecting samples independently from each stratum

Test-Retest Reliability

• Assessing measurement stability across time

Thematic Analysis

• Method for analyzing qualitative data to identify, analyse, and report themes
• Focuses on implicit and explicit ideas, developing codes to represent themes

Explore various epidemiological study designs including case control studies, cluster randomized trials, co-production approaches, and cohort studies. This quiz will test your understanding of how these methods are used to analyze health outcomes and collaborative research. Dive into the nuances and applications of each study type.