UCL Moodle Glossaries 2024-2025 PDF

06/01/2025, 21:04 Glossaries | UCL Moodle Monday, 6 January 2025, 9 Site: UC...

06/01/2025, 21:04 Glossaries | UCL Moodle Monday, 6 January 2025, 9 Site: UCL Moodle Course: PSBS0002: Core Principles of Mental Health Research 24/25 (PSBS0002_24-25) Glossary: 24/25 Super Glossary C Case control study A type of observational study used to explore factors associated with diseases or outcomes of interest. One group of similar individual with the outcome of interest (cases), and another group who are similar but without the outcome of interest (controls) are observed. Researchers look at historical factors to see if a certain exposure is found more commonly in the cases than in controls. Type of observational study that compares two groups of people; a case study, which receives the intervention or has the characteristic of interest for the study) and a control group, which is similar to the case group in all but the variable of interest. Case- control studies are used to determine if an exposure (the the variable in the case group) is associated with a certain outcome (such as development of a condition, or reduction of symptoms) (Groups 4 & 5) Cluster randomised trial A Cluster Randomised Trial (CRT) is a randomised controlled trial in which pre-existing groups, called clusters, of individuals, are randomly allocated to treatment arms. CRTs can be used when individual randomisation to treatment arms is not possible or the intervention is naturally applied to a whole cluster. The difference between a CRT and an RCT is that the unit of randomisation is the cluster in CRTs, as opposed to the individual participants in RCTs. By carrying out a CRT, the usefulness of interventions can be evaluated at the population level. Examples of clusters include families, institutions, medical practices etc. A cluster randomised trial (CRT) is a kind of experimental study in which groups or “clusters” such as hospitals or schools are randomly assigned to a particular intervention or control condition as opposed to individual participants. This design is implemented when interventions are targeted at a groups level or due to impracticality of individual randomisation. Outcomes within clusters tend to be more similar than those between clusters, and these correlations must be accounted for which requires adjustments in sample size and data analysis. This helps to maintain validity and reliability of designs and conclusions. CRTs are widely applied in public health contexts in order to evaluate interventions at a large scale in real world settings. Co-production A collaborative process to research in which there is a shared distribution of power often between clinicians, researchers, service users who work together. They make joint decisions, produce the research together, and are involved from the beginning of the research process until the end. Verschuere, B., Brandsen, T., & Pestoff, V. (2012). Coproduction: The state of the art in research and the future agenda. VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 23(4), 1083–1101. (Group 4) Cohort study A cohort study is an observational study where a group of individuals who share specific characteristics or exposures are followed ove a period of time to examine their influences on specific outcomes. Cohort studies could be tracking participants forwards from the point of exposure to investigate future outcomes, this is known as prospective cohort study. Another type is a retrospective cohort study, this is where pre-existing data is examined on past exposures and their specific outcomes. An observational study design where a group of individuals (the cohort) is followed over time to assess how exposure to certain risk factors affects the occurrence of specific outcomes (e.g., disease). Cohort studies can be prospective (starting in the present and following participants into the future) or retrospective (looking back at past exposures and outcomes). (Group 7 & Online Group) https://moodle.ucl.ac.uk/mod/glossary/print.php?id=7133885&mode&hook=ALL&sortkey&sortorder&offset=0&pagelimit=0 1/14 06/01/2025, 21:04 Glossaries | UCL Moodle Confidence intervals A confidence interval (CI) is a statistical range, calculated from sample data, that is likely to contain the true population parameter (e.g the mean) with a specified level of confidence. It provides a quantitative measure of the uncertainty associated with a sample estimate and is often used to infer information about the population from which the sample was drawn. The most common confidence interval is the 95% confidence interval, which means that if we repeatedly drew samples of the same size and calculated the confidence intervals for each, 95% of those intervals would include the true population mean. The width of a confidence interval depends on three factors: · Sample Size: Larger samples reduce the standard error, leading to narrower confidence intervals. · Variability: Greater variability within the data increases the standard error, resulting in wider confidence intervals. · Confidence Level: Higher confidence levels (e.g., 99%) require wider intervals to ensure the true parameter is captured, while lower confidence levels (e.g., 90%) produce narrower intervals. (Group 3) Confounding Confounding occurs when the relationship between an exposure and an outcome is distorted by a third variable that is associated with both. This can lead to misleading conclusions about the true effect of the exposure. A confounding variable is a third variable that is associated with both the exposure and the outcome and that can potentially distort the observed association between the exposure and outcome. For example, in a study examining the relationship between exercise and weight loss, diet may be a confounding variable. (Groups 2 & 7) Construct validity An assessment of how well a measure captures an abstract theoretical concept, known as a construct. This can be divided into convergent validity, discriminant/divergent validity, and structural validity. Convergent validity assesses the associations the measure has with related concepts. Discriminant/divergent validity is the degree to which a measure differs from othe constructs that are unrelated/assessed by other measures. Structural validity assesses the extent to which a single main factor emerges from the measure/scale, usually evaluated using factor analysis. Construct validity of the Maslach Burnout Inventory‐General Survey https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/smi.1030 (Group 8) Copy number variation Copy Number Variation (CNV): CNV is an important aspect of genetic diversity with significant implications for health, disease, and evolutionary biology. It refers to differences in the number of copies of specific DNA segments between individuals. These variations arise from duplications, deletions, or other changes, affecting portions of the genome. Copy Number Variation (CNV). (2024). Genome.gov. https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Copy-Number-Variation-CNV (Group 9) https://moodle.ucl.ac.uk/mod/glossary/print.php?id=7133885&mode&hook=ALL&sortkey&sortorder&offset=0&pagelimit=0 2/14 06/01/2025, 21:04 Glossaries | UCL Moodle Criterion validity Criterion validity refers to how well a test or measure correlates with an outcome or "criterion" that is already established as a valid indicator of the construct being measured. It assesses whether the test can accurately predict or reflect real-world outcomes. Criterion validity can be divided into: Concurrent Validity: The degree to which the test correlates with a criterion measured at the same time. Predictive Validity: The degree to which the test predicts future outcomes or behaviours. (Group 1) D Declaration of Helsinki A set of ethical principles developed by the World Medical Association to guide medical research involving human participants. First adopted in 1964 and subsequently amended19, it emphasises the importance of respect for individuals, informed consent, and the prioritisation of participants' well-being over the interests of science or society. The declaration also advocates for the ethical review o research protocols, transparency in study conduct and reporting, and access to interventions proven effective during studies. It serves as a foundational document in modern research ethics, widely influencing guidelines and policies globally. World Medical Association. (2013). World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. Jama, 310(20), 2191-2194. (Group 5) Diagnostic interview A diagnostic interview is a conversation between a trained professional (e.g. clinician, social worker) and a client or patient with the goal of collecting detailed information to assess the individual's psychological condition and diagnose a mental health disorder. It may be in the form of structured interviews consisting of a fixed set of questions based on standardised criteria (e.g. DSM-5), semi- structured interviews to explore extra details based on clients' responses, or unstructured interviews that rely on the professional's expertise. Questions may explore symptomology, clinical history, impacts on daily life and possible comorbid conditions. Levis, B., Benedetti, A., Riehm, K. E., Saadat, N., Levis, A. W., Azar, M., Rice, D. B., Chiovitti, M. J., Sanchez, T. A., Cuijpers, P., Gilbody, S., Ioannidis, J. P. A., Kloda, L. A., McMillan, D., Patten, S. B., Shrier, I., Steele, R. J., Ziegelstein, R. C., Akena, D. H.,... Thombs, B. D. (2018). Probability of major depression diagnostic classification using semi-structured versus fully structured diagnostic interviews. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 212(6), 377–385. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2018.54 (Group 9) Double and triple blinding Blinding refers to the process in which researchers, clinicians and/or patients in a clinical trial are prevented from knowing which study group each patient is in. The best way to do this is by sorting patients into study groups randomly. The purpose of 'blinding' or 'masking' is to protect against bias such as observer or expectation bias. In a single-blind study, patients do not know which study group they are in; whether they are in the experimental or the control group. In a double-blind study, neither the patients nor the researchers/clinicians know which study group the patients are in. In a triple-blind study, the patients, clinicians and the people carrying out the statistical analysis do not know which treatment patients had. (Group 3) E https://moodle.ucl.ac.uk/mod/glossary/print.php?id=7133885&mode&hook=ALL&sortkey&sortorder&offset=0&pagelimit=0 3/14 06/01/2025, 21:04 Glossaries | UCL Moodle Event-related potentials An Event-Related Potential (ERP) is a brain signal captured using EEG that is closely tied to specific events, like seeing, hearing, or making decisions. These signals are triggered by sensory input (like sights or sounds), cognitive activities (like thinking or remembering), or motor actions (like moving a hand). Different parts of the ERP reflect various brain processes, such as: Early sensory perception, updating memories, focusing attention, detecting mistakes, and other cognitive tasks. Sheela, P., & Puthankattil, S. D. (2018). Event related potential analysis techniques for autism spectrum disorders: A review. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 68(1), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2018.05.002 (Group 9) Exposures and outcomes Exposure is a variable that predicts a study outcome, also known as risk factors or independent variables. Outcome is a variable we wish to investigate and the focus of the investigation, also known as response variables and the dependent variable. Exposures are factors that may influence, explain or predict the outcome of a study, e.g., a new treatment. Outcomes are the effects o results that are measured in a study, symptom improvement. (Groups 5 & 9) F Feasibility and pilot trials Feasibility trials assess whether a larger study can be conducted, should be done and how it should be done. The focus primarily on the practicality of study design with aspects such as recruitment rate, data collection, methods and participant adherence included. Pilot trials are a subset of feasibility studies that specifically test the procedures and protocols of a future larger study on a smaller scale. The ultimate goal here being the identification of any potential issues and further refinement of the study. Blatch-Jones, A. J., Pek, W., Kirkpatrick, E., & Ashton-Key, M. (2018). Role of feasibility and pilot studies in randomised controlled trials a cross-sectional study. BMJ open, 8(9), e022233. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2018-022233 Floor and ceiling effects Statistical issue that arises as a result of a considerable number of participants achieving the highest or lowest scores. Ceiling Effects refer to participants clustering near the maximum possible scores. Floor effects refer to participant scores clustering near the minimum possible score. Taku, K., Iimura, S. & McDiarmid, L. (2017). Ceiling Effects and Floor Effects of the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory. Journal of Child an Family Studies, 27(2), 387–397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0915-1 (Group 8) https://moodle.ucl.ac.uk/mod/glossary/print.php?id=7133885&mode&hook=ALL&sortkey&sortorder&offset=0&pagelimit=0 4/14 06/01/2025, 21:04 Glossaries | UCL Moodle Focus group A focus group is a qualitative research method that involves a facilitator leading a group discussion to gather information about a topic Focus groups are often used to learn about people's attitudes, experiences, and opinions about a product, service, or idea. In mental health research, focus groups are used primarily to discuss opinions, feelings and attitudes towards a topic, particularly a service. The result is that focus groups in mental health research often elicit information about consumer satisfaction, unmet/met service needs and the impact of a particular service. Schilder, K., Tomov, T., Mladenova, M., Mayeya, J., Jenkins, R., Gulbinat, W.,... & Sakuta, T. (2004). The appropriateness and use of focus group methodology across international mental health communities. International Review of Psychiatry, 16(1-2), 24- 30.https://doi.org/10.1080/09540260310001635078 (Group 7) A qualitative research method, in which a moderator typically leads a structured but open-ended discussion, in order to gather feedback, opinions or insights from a small group of individuals on a specific topic of interest. John, R. P., Knott, F. J., & Harvey, K. N. (2018). Myths about autism: An exploratory study using focus groups. Autism, 22(7), 845-854. (Group 8) Functional magnetic resonance imaging FMRI is a non-invasive neuroimaging technique used to measure and map brain activity by detecting changes in blood oxygenation in response to neural activity. FMRI is widely used in psychological research to investigate cognitive processes such as memory, language, and emotion, as well as in clinical settings for assessing brain function in patients with neurological disorders. While it provides strong spatial resolutions, its temporal resolution is limited due to the delayed hemodynamic response. Harrison, R. V., & Kwan, D. (2014). The physics of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 39(6), 1273-1284 (Group 7) G Genome A genome is the complete set of genetic material in an organism’s cells. It contains 23 chromosomes, which are DNA and protein structures located in the nucleus of the cell. The genome contains all the information required for an organism to develop, function and grow. Studying genomes has significant implications for understanding various mental health conditions, such as depression, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia, and helping mental health researchers explain, predict, and potentially prevent mental illnesses by enabling personalized approaches to patient care. For example, a genome-wide scan identified specific genes and gene interactions associated with an increased risk of bipolar disorder (Mclnnis et al., 2003). McInnis, M. G., Dick, D. M., Willour, V. L., Avramopoulos, D., MacKinnon, D. F., Simpson, S. G.,... & Foroud, T. M. (2003). Genome-wide scan and conditional analysis in bipolar disorder: evidence for genomic interaction in the National Institute of Mental Health genetics initiative bipolar pedigrees. Biological psychiatry, 54(11), 1265-1273. (Group 3) H Heritability Heritability refers to the proportion of variation in a trait or disorder within a population that is due to genetic differences among individuals. It does not explain the specific genetic causes of traits but rather it indicates how much genetic factors contribute to observed variation. Twin studies, particularly those comparing monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins are often used to estimate heritability. If identical twins show higher concordance rates for a trait compared to dizygotic twins, it suggests a genetic component to the trait. (Group 8) https://moodle.ucl.ac.uk/mod/glossary/print.php?id=7133885&mode&hook=ALL&sortkey&sortorder&offset=0&pagelimit=0 5/14 06/01/2025, 21:04 Glossaries | UCL Moodle Hill’s postulates Hill’s postulates (also known as the Bradford-Hill criteria) are a set of 9 factors to consider when determining whether the observed exposure is likely to cause the observed outcome. In other words, it is a framework that can be used to determine causality. Whilst a study does not have to satisfy every criteria for their research to be considered causal, it is a good framework in which to analyse research findings. They are commonly used in public health or epidemiological research. The postulates include; Strength - how strong the association between exposure and outcome is. Consistency - if the research findings have been observed in other studies or contexts Specificity - if we can determine that the specific outcome observed is caused by a specific exposure and not multiple Temporality - the exposure occurs before the outcome Dose-response - if greater exposure leads to greater outcomes Plausibility - the definement of an established underlying mechanism that could explain the association Coherence - whether the association is consistent with existing research or information Experiment type - Is the experiment using a design that has stronger causal links e.g. Randomised control trials Analogy - whether similar exposures have caused similar outcomes in previous research (Group 8) I Implementation research focuses on understanding and promoting the uptake, integration, and sustainability of evidence-based interventions or policies in real- world settings. It studies the barriers, facilitators, and strategies for successfully implementing these interventions within healthcare systems, communities, or other contexts. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3808121 (Online Group) Informed consent the process through which participants are provided with sufficient information about a study, including its purpose, risks, benefits, an alternatives, allowing them to voluntarily decide whether to participate. Consent must be freely given and based on a full understandin of the research. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5543760/ (Group 10) Inter-rater reliability Inter-rater reliability refers to the extent to which there is agreement between two or more raters assessing the same phenomenon. It measures how similarly multiple raters score on a rating scale or how multiple observers classify an observation. Cohen’s kappa is used to measure inter-rater reliability; a kappa score that is 0.75 or greater is an indicator of excellent inter-rater reliability, suggesting that the method of assessment is reliable. Wing, L., Leekam, S. R., Libby, S. J., Gould, J., & Larcombe, M. (2002). The diagnostic interview for social and communication disorders: Background, inter‐rater reliability and clinical use. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, 43(3), 307-325 (Group 7) L https://moodle.ucl.ac.uk/mod/glossary/print.php?id=7133885&mode&hook=ALL&sortkey&sortorder&offset=0&pagelimit=0 6/14 06/01/2025, 21:04 Glossaries | UCL Moodle Likert scale A Likert scale is a method of measuring survey responses through a 5 point or 7-point answer range indicating negative, neutral, or positive responses (Saffo et al., 2022). South, L., Saffo, D., Vitek, O., Dunne, C., & Borkin, M. A. (2022, June). Effective use of Likert scales in visualization evaluations: A systematic review. In Computer Graphics Forum (Vol. 41, No. 3, pp. 43-55). https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/10/1/e031765.abstract Group 6 M Measurement bias Measurement bias occurs when a study variable, such as an exposure or an outcome, is measured inaccurately. This inaccuracy can result in either random or non-random misclassification. Non-random misclassification is particularly important because it can distort study results, either exaggerating or underestimating the true effect. Examples of non-random misclassification include observer bias, recall bias and instrument bias. Systematic error in data collection that leads to inaccurate or inconsistent results, e.g., recall bias (where participants may inaccurately remember past events), observer bias (where the researcher’s expectations influence their assessments), or social desirability bias (where participants respond in a way they believe is socially acceptable rather than truthfully). (Groups 2 & 9) Mental capacity Mental capacity refers to an individual's ability to understand and process relevant information such that they can make informed choices about their health, life and future wellbeing. It entails coherent cognitive processes that facilitate coherent decision making, reasoning, effective communication skills and weighing of potential outcomes or consequences. Mental capacity is typically assessed in legal and clinical contexts, particularly when it comes to evaluating consent in order to establish ethical parameters and safeguard individual autonomy. These values can be considered in addition to acknowledging any potential vulnerability on the part of patients. Appelbaum, P. S. (2007). Assessment of patients' competence to consent to treatment. New England Journal of Medicine, 357(18), 1834-1840. (Group 7) MRC framework for development and evaluation of complex intervention The Medical Research Council (MRC) who are a body responsible for coordinating and funding research in the UK have set out a framework on the development and evaluation of complex interventions. Updated in 2021, the improved framework combines four elements of feasibility, evaluation, implementation, and development/identification. Example paper: Skivington, K., Matthews, L. (2021). A New Framework for Developing and Evaluating Complex interventions: Update of Medical Research Council Guidance. BMJ, [online] 374(1), p.n2061. https://www.bmj.com/content/374/bmj.n2061 (Group 1) P https://moodle.ucl.ac.uk/mod/glossary/print.php?id=7133885&mode&hook=ALL&sortkey&sortorder&offset=0&pagelimit=0 7/14 06/01/2025, 21:04 Glossaries | UCL Moodle Participant observation It is a research method used for data collection in qualitative research. It is a very valuable technique as it allows researchers to study and observe behaviours and phenomena that might be difficult for participants to describe in an interview or to measure using a quantitative standardised measure. It also provides a nuanced understanding of phenomena such as interactions and relationships between people or among groups. The data collected from observations is in the form of written notes or else, field notes, taken by the researcher observing the participants. These are then analysed and interpreted through various analytical methods, like thematic analysis. Strand, J., Olin, E., & Tidefors, I. (2015). Mental health professionals’ views of the parents of patients with psychotic disorders: A participant observation study. Health & Social Care in the Community, 23(2), 141-149. https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.12122 (Group 9) Patient and public involvement A collaborative approach that engages key stakeholders—such as patients, carers, and the public—in the design, execution, and dissemination of research. The aim of PPI is to enhance the quality and relevance of research by including those who stand to benefit from it. Erridge et al. (2020) https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32322678/ (Group 2) Phenomenology An approach focused on describing and understanding subjective experiences and how phenomena appear to consciousness, emphasising the lived experience and the context in which it occurs. It seeks to explore the essence of these experiences through rich contextualised descriptions, often integrating interpretation. Davidsen, A. S. (2013). Phenomenological Approaches in Psychology and Health Sciences. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 10(3), 318–339. https://doi.org/10.1080/14780887.2011.608466 (Group 7) Phenomenology’, in psychology, can broadly have two different meanings: (1) it refers to the character of a particular experience, condition, or mental process as experienced, subjectively, by the individual themselves; (2) and, as an approach to psychology, it refers to methods which emphasise the study of subjective human experience. Patients experience of cognitive fatigue post-stroke: An exploratory study. (Askari et al., 2023) https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2023.2280065 (Group 5) Power calculation A power calculation is a statistical method used to calculate the sample size required in a study, for an effect size to be detected, if it exists. Additionally, it provides information regarding the feasibility of a study based on these previously made assumptions about wha effect size is expected. It helps define the absolute necessary resources needed and ensures that the study is not under- or over- powered, leading to inconclusive findings, or the wasting of resources. a statistical method used to determine the sample size needed in a study to detect a true effect or difference between groups, if one exists. A study with adequate statistical power reduces the likelihood of Type II errors (failing to detect a true effect). (Groups 9 & Online Group) https://moodle.ucl.ac.uk/mod/glossary/print.php?id=7133885&mode&hook=ALL&sortkey&sortorder&offset=0&pagelimit=0 8/14 06/01/2025, 21:04 Glossaries | UCL Moodle Pragmatic trial A pragmatic trial is a type of clinical trial designed to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention in real-world, routine practice settings rather than under controlled conditions. Unlike explanatory trials, which test interventions under ideal circumstances to establish efficacy, pragmatic trials focus on how well an intervention works in everyday clinical settings, reflecting typical patient populations, diverse healthcare providers, and usual care practices (Patsopoulos, 2011). The pragmatic trial is designed to test interventions in the full spectrum of everyday clinical settings in order to maximize applicability and generalizability. A type of clinical trial designed to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention in real-world, routine practice conditions. Unlike traditional clinical trials, which are highly controlled, pragmatic trials aim to reflect everyday clinical environments and patient populations. (Group 3 & Online Group) Primary hypothesis The primary hypothesis represents the central prediction that the study is designed to assess. It occurs by reframing the research question and clearly identifying the sample, the predictor and the outcome variables. A well-defined primary hypothesis should be simple, precise and stated prior to conducting the research. It provides a clear framework for statistical testing and the interpretation o results. Hulley, S. B., Cummings, S. R., Browner, W. S., Grady, D. G. & Newman T. B., (2013). Designing Clinical Research: An Epidemiologic Approach (4th ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. https://tilda.tcd.ie/epidemiology-biostatistics-course/course- material/assets/Class2/Designingclinicalresearch_4th-edition.pdf (Group 7) Purposive sampling A technique used in qualitative research to select a specific group of individuals or units for analysis. Campbell, S., Greenwood, M., Prior, S., Shearer, T., Walkem, K., Young, S.,... & Walker, K. (2020). Purposive sampling: complex or simple? Research case examples. Journal of research in Nursing, 25(8), 652-661. (Online Group) A type of sampling technique whereby participants are selected based on a specific criterion, such as a specific disorder that is the basis of the research you are conducting. For example, those with gaming addiction. Junus, A., Hsu, Y. C., Wong, C., & Yip, P. S. (2023). Is internet gaming disorder associated with suicidal behaviors among the younger generation? Multiple logistic regressions on a large-scale purposive sampling survey. Journal of psychiatric research, 161, 2-9. (Group 1) Q Quality of life Quality of Life (QoL) in the context of mental health is defined as an individual's perception of their position in life in the context of the culture and value systems in which they live and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards, and concerns. This multidimensiona concept includes domains like physical health, psychological well-being, social relationships, and environmental factors. Connell, J., O'Cathain, A., & Brazier, J. (2014). Measuring quality of life in mental health: are we asking the right questions?. Social science & medicine, 120, 12-20. (Group 9) R https://moodle.ucl.ac.uk/mod/glossary/print.php?id=7133885&mode&hook=ALL&sortkey&sortorder&offset=0&pagelimit=0 9/14 06/01/2025, 21:04 Glossaries | UCL Moodle Random sampling The most effective way to minimise the impact of uncontrolled factors is through random sampling, where participants are randomly selected from the population that meets the study's inclusion criteria. This method ensures that each individual has an equal, fixed chance of being included, with a random process determining the selection. Random sampling enhances generalisability and strengthens the validity of the study (Group 2) Randomisation The process of randomly assigning individuals or experimental units to different groups (e.g., treatment and control groups). This ensures that each unit or individual has an equal chance of being placed in any group, which helps eliminate selection bias and balances out confounding variables across groups. Assigning people in a research study to different groups without taking any similarities or differences between them into account. For example, it could involve using a random numbers table or a computer-generated random sequence. It means that each individual (or each group in the case of cluster randomisation) has the same chance of having each intervention. This eliminates accidental bias. (Groups 4 & 8) Randomised controlled trial A randomised controlled trials are a type of clinical trial in which a number of people with similar characteristics are randomly assigned to two or more groups to test a specific intervention, treatment, or drug. One group (the experimental group) has the intervention being tested, the other (the comparison or control group) has an alternative intervention, placebo or no intervention at all. The groups are followed up to assess the effectiveness of the experimental intervention. Outcomes are measured at specific times and any difference in response between the groups is assessed statistically. This method is also used to ensure 'fair comparison' that is not affected by bias during selection or grouping process. Due to that, RCTs are considered the 'gold standard' method to examine cause and effect relationships between intervention and outcome (Group 3) Recovery measure A recovery measure in mental health refers to a set of tools or instruments designed to assess an individual's recovery journey. Recovery is often conceptualized as a multidimensional process involving improvements in mental health, quality of life, social connections, and personal autonomy, rather than merely symptom reduction. These measures capture both subjective experiences (e.g., hope, empowerment) and objective outcomes (e.g., employment, housing stability). Sklar, M., Groessl, E. J., O'Connell, M., Davidson, L., & Aarons, G. A. (2013). Instruments for measuring mental health recovery: a systematic review. Clinical psychology review, 33(8), 1082-1095. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.08.002 (Group 9) Individual recovery measures help consumers, carers, and service providers track recovery progress and identify opportunities for improvement, both individually and through collaboration with close ones. Additionally, recovery orientation measures assess how well services and teams are supporting recovery. Burgess, P., Pirkis, J., Coombs, T., & Rosen, A. (2010). Review of recovery measures. Australian mental health outcomes and classification network, 1, 1-78. (Group 6) https://moodle.ucl.ac.uk/mod/glossary/print.php?id=7133885&mode&hook=ALL&sortkey&sortorder&offset=0&pagelimit=0 10/14 06/01/2025, 21:04 Glossaries | UCL Moodle Representativeness The degree to which a sample or study population accurately reflects the characteristics of the larger population from which it was drawn. A representative sample ensures that the study findings are generalizable and applicable to the broader population. Tenenbaum, J. B., & Griffiths, T. L. (2001). The rational basis of representativeness. In Proceedings of the 23rd annual conference of the Cognitive Science Society (Vol. 6). (Online Group) Representativeness refers to the extent to which the characteristics of a study—subjects, settings, exposures, and outcomes— accurately reflect those of a larger external population. It is time, place, and context-specific, ensuring that a study sample corresponds proportionally to the essential characteristics of the target population. A representative sample allows for generalisability, meaning either the estimates obtained or the interpretation of results can be applied to the broader population. Rudolph, J. E., Zhong, Y., Duggal, P., Mehta, S. H., & Lau, B. (2023). Defining representativeness of study samples in medical and population health research. BMJ Medicine, 2(1), e000399. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjmed-2022-000399 (Group 2) Research impact Group 2: Research Impact refers to the marked effect or influence that research activities have beyond academia. It encompasses any positive or negative changes or benefits to the economy, society, culture, public policy or services, health, the environment, or quality of life. Research impact involves translating academic outputs—such as knowledge generated and publications—into outcomes like new products, services, or policies that create added value and contribute to societal change. Penfield, T., Baker, M. J., Scoble, R., & Wykes, M. C. (2014). Assessment, evaluations, and definitions of research impact: A review. Research Evaluation, 23(1), 21–32. https://doi.org/10.1093/reseval/rvt021 (Group 2) S Screening tool A screening tool in the context of mental health research is a standardised instrument designed to identify individuals who may be at risk for or are experiencing mental health conditions. Screening tools are typically used as a preliminary step to detect potential symptoms or indicators of specific mental health disorders, facilitating early intervention, further assessment, or referral for comprehensive evaluation. These tools are not diagnostic but aim to quickly and efficiently categorise individuals who may benefit from additional clinical attention. A screening tool in the context of research, particularly in mental health studies, can also serve as a mechanism to measure the eligibility of participants for inclusion in a broader study. This application ensures that participants meet specific criteria that align with the study's objectives, population focus, or research questions. Group 5 https://moodle.ucl.ac.uk/mod/glossary/print.php?id=7133885&mode&hook=ALL&sortkey&sortorder&offset=0&pagelimit=0 11/14 06/01/2025, 21:04 Glossaries | UCL Moodle Selection bias Selection bias is a type of error that happens during the participant recruitment stage. Selection bias occurs when the participants recruited in the study are not representative of the study population, or if certain individuals are more (or less) likely to be selected tha others. This may limit the generalisability of the study. Selection bias can arise in various ways, such as: Sampling Bias: the sample is not representative of the study population Self-Selection Bias: certain types of individuals actively choose to participate, leading to over-representation Attrition Bias: when participants drop out of the study in a way that biases the remaining sample (e.g., those with higher stress may leave a study on mental health, leading to an underestimation of stress levels). (Group 8) Semi-structured interview Interviews are a method of exploratory data collection within qualitative research. On a continuum from exploratory discussions to highly structured interviews, semi-structured interviews both follow an interview guide and simultaneously allow for discovery with individual participants. Semi-structured interview guides are developed prior to data collection and provide the trained researcher with preset questions, which can be both open and closed, relevant to the research topic and question. Semi-structured interviews can be used by clinicians within research to diagnose individuals with mental health problems and they can be used to systematically explore individual opinions, attitudes and beliefs across numerous participants while focusing on the research question. Example paper: Romito, M., Salk, R. H., Roberts, S. R., Thoma, B. C., Levine, M. D., & Choukas-Bradley, S. (2021). Exploring transgende adolescents’ body image concerns and disordered eating: Semi-structured interviews with nine gender minority youth. Body Image, 37 50-62. (Group 1) Sensitivity Sensitivity is the ability of a measure to identify truly positive cases accurately. It shows how well a scale or test could identify individuals with a particular characteristic, condition or trait. The high sensitivity of a measure minimises the chances of false positives and helps ensure that most individuals with the characteristic of interest are identified. In contrast, few or no individuals without the characteristic of interest are identified by mistake. Lionetti, F., Aron, A., Aron, E. N., Burns, G. L., Jagiellowicz, J., & Pluess, M. (2018). Dandelions, tulips and orchids: evidence for the existence of low-sensitive, medium-sensitive and high-sensitive individuals. Translational Psychiatry, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-017-0090-6 (Group 9) Social functioning Refers to an individual’s ability to effectively navigate different social contexts such as relationships, family life, and work. It includes social skills, communication and emotion regulation. Bemmer, E. R., Boulton, K. A., Thomas, E. E., Larke, B., Lah, S., Hickie, I. B., & Guastella, A. J. (2021). Modified CBT for social anxiety and social functioning in young adults with autism spectrum disorder. Molecular Autism, 12, 1-15. (Group 8) https://moodle.ucl.ac.uk/mod/glossary/print.php?id=7133885&mode&hook=ALL&sortkey&sortorder&offset=0&pagelimit=0 12/14 06/01/2025, 21:04 Glossaries | UCL Moodle Specificity Specificity denotes the proportion of subjects correctly given a negative assignment out of all subjects who are actually negative for the outcome, indicates how well a test can classify subjects who truly do not have the outcome of interest. It is the percentage of persons without the disease who are correctly excluded by the test. Monaghan, T. F., Rahman, S. N., Agudelo, C. W., Wein, A. J., Lazar, J. M., Everaert, K., & Dmochowski, R. R. (2021). Foundational statistical principles in medical research: sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value. Medicina, 57(5), 503. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina57050503 (Group 7) SPECT (single proton emission computerised tomography) Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) is a medical imaging technique that uses a radioactive tracer to evaluate organ function and blood flow, providing 3D images of the body’s internal processes. The tracer emits gamma rays, which are detected by a rotating gamma camera that can capture multiple angles. A computer processes this data to create detailed cross-sectional images, allowing doctors to assess physiological activity in organs such as the heart, brain, and bones. SPECT is commonly used for diagnosing and monitoring conditions such as coronary artery disease, neurological disorders, cancer, and bone abnormalities. While i offers valuable functional insights, it has lower resolution than CT or MRI and involves low-level radiation exposure. Its affordability and versatility make it a widely used alternative to PET scans. National Research Council (US) and Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on the Mathematics and Physics of Emerging Dynamic Biomedical Imaging. Mathematics and Physics of Emerging Biomedical Imaging. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 1996. Chapter 5, Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK232492/ (Group 7) Stratification Stratification is a method of dividing a population into distinct groups, or strata, based on specific characteristics. Stratified sampling involves separating the population into strata according to a known characteristic for each unit and then selecting samples independently from each group. This approach allows flexibility in choosing sampling methods for different strata and improves the precision of parameter estimates when the units within each stratum are relatively similar. (Group 2) T Test-retest reliability Test-retest reliability refers to the consistency of a measurement tool when the same test is administered to the same sample at two different time points. It assesses the stability and reproducibility of the test results over time and can be calculated with the correlation coefficient between responses at each time point. A score that is ≥ 0.7 indicates good test-retest reliability. Jason, L. A., So, S., Brown, A. A., Sunnquist, M., & Evans, M. (2015). Test–retest reliability of the DePaul Symptom Questionnaire. Fatigue: biomedicine, health & behavior, 3(1), 16-32. (Group 7) https://moodle.ucl.ac.uk/mod/glossary/print.php?id=7133885&mode&hook=ALL&sortkey&sortorder&offset=0&pagelimit=0 13/14 06/01/2025, 21:04 Glossaries | UCL Moodle Thematic analysis A method used to analyse data from qualitative research, particularly to identify, analyse, organise, describe, and report the main themes found within a data set. One advantage is that it allows us to draw information out of the data directly, without requiring any pre-existing knowledge, assumption, or hypotheses. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative research in psychology, 3(2), 77-101. (Group 5) Thematic analysis is a qualitative research method that involves identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns (themes) within data. It goes beyond merely counting explicit words or phrases, focusing instead on both implicit and explicit ideas, allowing for a deeper understanding of the data's meaning. This approach requires interpretation from the researcher to develop codes that represent identified themes, facilitating a comprehensive analysis of qualitative data. Guest, G., MacQueen, K. M., & Namey, E. E. (2011). Applied thematic analysis. sage publications. (Group 3) https://moodle.ucl.ac.uk/mod/glossary/print.php?id=7133885&mode&hook=ALL&sortkey&sortorder&offset=0&pagelimit=0 14/14