Endocrine System: Hormones and Regulation

The Endocrine System

• Major organs of the endocrine system distribute endocrine functions.
• The endocrine and nervous systems are different, but the both use negative feedback regulation in maintenance of homeostasis.
• Peptide and steroid hormones differ in structure, transport, and mechanisms of action.
• Hormones influence second messenger activation
• The hypothalamus and pituitary gland have structural and functional relationships.
• Hypothalamic hormones regulate anterior pituitary hormones.
• Anterior and posterior pituitary hormones have primary targets and actions.
• Anterior pituitary hormone release is affected by various factors.
• "Tropic" and "trophic" effects are different, know examples of tropic cascades.
• Hormone release is regulated by negative feedback on the hypothalamic-pituitary gland-effector axis.
• The thyroid gland's anatomy and organization into follicles are important.
• Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) are synthesized, transported, act, and regulated differently
• The adrenal medulla and cortex produce different hormones.
• Glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and androgens from the adrenal cortex affect the body.

The Circulatory System: Heart

• Location and anatomical features of the heart.
• The two major circulatory systems in the human body are different.
• It is important to understand blood flow through the heart and lungs, and to be able to diagram this.
• Major blood vessels, chambers, and valves of the heart should be identified.
• Coronary arteries supply different parts of the heart muscle.
• The components of the cardiac conduction system should be understood..
• There is a sequence of excitation of the cardiac conduction system.
• Features of the cardiac muscle action potential, including the ionic basis of the potential changes should be discussed,.
• Cardiac muscle and SA node potentials are different.
• The generation of the cardiac muscle action potential is important.
• The components of a normal ECG have physiological relevance.
• HR can be measured from the ECG.
• There is a relationship between pressure and volume in heart chambers during systole and diastole.
• Cardiac output should be defined, and values should be able to be calculated using heart rate and stroke volume.
• Determinants of stroke volume and their mechanisms are important.
• The Frank-Starling mechanism.
• Systole, diastole, and contractility should be defined.
• The autonomic nervous system (ANS) controls heart rate.
• Activation of the ANS changes neurotransmitter release, which leads to changes in HR.
• Oxygen and hormones influence HR and contractility.

The Circulatory System: Blood Vessels & Circulation

• General features of a capillary network should be described.
• There are anatomical and physiological differences between each type of capillary.
• Fluid and solutes go through the capillary wall in specific ways.
• Movement of fluid in and out of capillaries
• The relation between cross sectional area of the vascular system, and blood flow velocity should be understood
• Systolic, diastolic, and mean blood pressures differ in the systemic and pulmonary circulations.
• Vascular resistance has principal components, vessel diameter significantly affects resistance.
• Systemic vascular resistance can be calculated using cardiac output, mean aortic pressure, and mean right atrial pressure.
• The baroreceptor and chemoreceptor reflex pathways, starting with the stimulus and ending with the physiological result can be diagrammed.
• Hormones can either decrease or increase blood pressure. Neural, humoral and local regulation of blood vessel diameter and blood flow are different..