Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which hormone directly opposes the effects of glucagon?
Which hormone directly opposes the effects of glucagon?
- Triiodothyronine (T3)
- Mineralocorticoids
- Insulin (correct)
- Oxytocin
Inhibiting hormones (IH) that regulate anterior pituitary function are primarily produced by which of the following?
Inhibiting hormones (IH) that regulate anterior pituitary function are primarily produced by which of the following?
- Anterior Pituitary
- Hypothalamus (correct)
- Thyroid
- Pancreas
What is the primary physiological effect during the alarm phase of the body's response to stress?
What is the primary physiological effect during the alarm phase of the body's response to stress?
- Conserve glucose, mobilize lipid reserves, conserve salts & water
- Drainage of all energy reserves
- Breakdown of organ system function, organ failure
- Mobilize glucose energy reserves (correct)
Which hormone is synthesized and secreted by pinealocytes within the pineal gland?
Which hormone is synthesized and secreted by pinealocytes within the pineal gland?
What is the overall effect of insulin on blood glucose concentration?
What is the overall effect of insulin on blood glucose concentration?
Parathyroid hormone (PTH), crucial for calcium regulation, is produced by which specific cells?
Parathyroid hormone (PTH), crucial for calcium regulation, is produced by which specific cells?
What is the primary effect of prolactin (PRL) on mammary glands?
What is the primary effect of prolactin (PRL) on mammary glands?
Which endocrine organ integrates neural and hormonal signals, exerting control over the pituitary gland and, consequently, many bodily functions?
Which endocrine organ integrates neural and hormonal signals, exerting control over the pituitary gland and, consequently, many bodily functions?
What type of stimulation primarily triggers the release of calcitonin from the thyroid?
What type of stimulation primarily triggers the release of calcitonin from the thyroid?
In a positive feedback loop involving two hormones, where hormone 1 stimulates the release of hormone 2, what happens to the levels of hormone 1 as hormone 2 levels increase?
In a positive feedback loop involving two hormones, where hormone 1 stimulates the release of hormone 2, what happens to the levels of hormone 1 as hormone 2 levels increase?
Which gland releases catecholamines, such as epinephrine and norepinephrine, into circulation during times of stress?
Which gland releases catecholamines, such as epinephrine and norepinephrine, into circulation during times of stress?
Which tissues are primary targets for insulin action, facilitating glucose uptake and utilization?
Which tissues are primary targets for insulin action, facilitating glucose uptake and utilization?
Which hormone opposes the effects of parathyroid hormone (PTH) and helps regulate calcium levels in the blood?
Which hormone opposes the effects of parathyroid hormone (PTH) and helps regulate calcium levels in the blood?
Inhibiting hormones (IH) produced by the hypothalamus primarily target which gland?
Inhibiting hormones (IH) produced by the hypothalamus primarily target which gland?
Which specific cells within the pancreas are primarily responsible for producing glucagon?
Which specific cells within the pancreas are primarily responsible for producing glucagon?
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) directly targets which endocrine gland to stimulate the release of cortisol?
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) directly targets which endocrine gland to stimulate the release of cortisol?
How many distinct hormones are released into circulation by the anterior pituitary gland?
How many distinct hormones are released into circulation by the anterior pituitary gland?
Which specific phase of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS) is characterized by the body's attempt to counteract the effects of stress through the mobilization of resources?
Which specific phase of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS) is characterized by the body's attempt to counteract the effects of stress through the mobilization of resources?
Which of the following is the primary stimulus for the release of growth hormone (GH) from the anterior pituitary?
Which of the following is the primary stimulus for the release of growth hormone (GH) from the anterior pituitary?
Which cell type is exclusively found within the pineal gland that produces melatonin?
Which cell type is exclusively found within the pineal gland that produces melatonin?
Beta cells, which are critical for glucose homeostasis through insulin production, are located in which endocrine organ?
Beta cells, which are critical for glucose homeostasis through insulin production, are located in which endocrine organ?
Which gland secretes growth hormone (GH) into circulation?
Which gland secretes growth hormone (GH) into circulation?
Which is primarily responsible for the production of releasing hormones (RH)?
Which is primarily responsible for the production of releasing hormones (RH)?
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) acts specifically on which of the following?
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) acts specifically on which of the following?
In which major body region is the pineal gland located?
In which major body region is the pineal gland located?
What type of stimulation primarily causes the release of oxytocin?
What type of stimulation primarily causes the release of oxytocin?
Which of the following endocrine organs contains the Islets of Langerhans, known for housing cells that produce hormones regulating glucose levels?
Which of the following endocrine organs contains the Islets of Langerhans, known for housing cells that produce hormones regulating glucose levels?
In which endocrine organ are alpha cells located?
In which endocrine organ are alpha cells located?
Which of the following cells are located in the thyroid?
Which of the following cells are located in the thyroid?
Which endocrine gland releases androgens into the circulation?
Which endocrine gland releases androgens into the circulation?
What is the primary physiological effect of melatonin on the human body?
What is the primary physiological effect of melatonin on the human body?
Which of the following stimulation causes the release of melatonin?
Which of the following stimulation causes the release of melatonin?
What is the predominant effect of triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) on the body's metabolic activity?
What is the predominant effect of triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) on the body's metabolic activity?
Prolactin (PRL) primarily targets which of the following?
Prolactin (PRL) primarily targets which of the following?
Adaptive immunity is present under which of the following circumstances?
Adaptive immunity is present under which of the following circumstances?
What is the term for the process by which B cells internalize and display an antigen?
What is the term for the process by which B cells internalize and display an antigen?
Where does B cell differentiation get completed?
Where does B cell differentiation get completed?
Once activated, what primary function do helper T cells perform?
Once activated, what primary function do helper T cells perform?
Which type of T cell is responsible for recognizing and binding to B cells during the adaptive immune response?
Which type of T cell is responsible for recognizing and binding to B cells during the adaptive immune response?
Which immune response typically develops faster upon exposure to a pathogen?
Which immune response typically develops faster upon exposure to a pathogen?
What happens to electrolyte balance during the alarm phase of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS)?
What happens to electrolyte balance during the alarm phase of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS)?
If Hormone A inhibits the secretion of Hormone B, and Hormone B stimulates the release of Hormone C, what would be the effect of increased concentration of Hormone A on the plasma concentration of Hormone C?
If Hormone A inhibits the secretion of Hormone B, and Hormone B stimulates the release of Hormone C, what would be the effect of increased concentration of Hormone A on the plasma concentration of Hormone C?
During prolonged stress, cortisol is released. What is the consequence of long-term elevated levels of cortisol on immune function?
During prolonged stress, cortisol is released. What is the consequence of long-term elevated levels of cortisol on immune function?
Which of the following is the most likely outcome of chronically elevated levels of growth hormone (GH)?
Which of the following is the most likely outcome of chronically elevated levels of growth hormone (GH)?
Which of the following best describes the relationship between the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary gland?
Which of the following best describes the relationship between the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary gland?
If a patient has a tumor that causes excessive secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), what symptoms might you expect to see?
If a patient has a tumor that causes excessive secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), what symptoms might you expect to see?
Which of the following mechanisms explains how the presence of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) decreases TSH release?
Which of the following mechanisms explains how the presence of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) decreases TSH release?
How would damage to the parathyroid glands impact blood calcium homeostasis, and what compensatory mechanisms might the body employ?
How would damage to the parathyroid glands impact blood calcium homeostasis, and what compensatory mechanisms might the body employ?
What is the expected outcome of administering a drug that enhances the sensitivity of target tissues to insulin in a patient with type 2 diabetes?
What is the expected outcome of administering a drug that enhances the sensitivity of target tissues to insulin in a patient with type 2 diabetes?
How do the effects of glucagon on liver cells contribute to maintaining blood glucose levels during fasting?
How do the effects of glucagon on liver cells contribute to maintaining blood glucose levels during fasting?
In a scenario where a patient's adrenal glands are not producing sufficient cortisol, what would be the likely effect on ACTH levels, and why?
In a scenario where a patient's adrenal glands are not producing sufficient cortisol, what would be the likely effect on ACTH levels, and why?
Which of the physiological consequences would you anticipate in an individual with a malfunctioning pineal gland?
Which of the physiological consequences would you anticipate in an individual with a malfunctioning pineal gland?
What is the relationship between oxytocin and uterine contractions during childbirth, and how is this regulated?
What is the relationship between oxytocin and uterine contractions during childbirth, and how is this regulated?
If a person is exposed to bright light late at night, what effect would you expect on their melatonin production and sleep cycle?
If a person is exposed to bright light late at night, what effect would you expect on their melatonin production and sleep cycle?
Which of the following explains the adaptive role of increased T3 and T4 production during exposure to cold temperatures?
Which of the following explains the adaptive role of increased T3 and T4 production during exposure to cold temperatures?
Which of the following processes is directly facilitated by prolactin's action on mammary gland cells?
Which of the following processes is directly facilitated by prolactin's action on mammary gland cells?
How does the regulation of blood calcium levels differ between calcitonin and parathyroid hormone (PTH)?
How does the regulation of blood calcium levels differ between calcitonin and parathyroid hormone (PTH)?
What are the implications of damage to the hypophyseal portal system on endocrine function?
What are the implications of damage to the hypophyseal portal system on endocrine function?
In an individual experiencing chronic stress, how might the sustained release of cortisol affect the sensitivity of tissues to insulin?
In an individual experiencing chronic stress, how might the sustained release of cortisol affect the sensitivity of tissues to insulin?
What effect would a medication that blocks the action of growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) have on an individual's growth?
What effect would a medication that blocks the action of growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) have on an individual's growth?
What is the role of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) in initiating an adaptive immune response?
What is the role of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) in initiating an adaptive immune response?
How does the secondary immune response differ from the primary immune response in terms of speed and magnitude?
How does the secondary immune response differ from the primary immune response in terms of speed and magnitude?
What is the fundamental difference in how B cells and T cells recognize antigens?
What is the fundamental difference in how B cells and T cells recognize antigens?
What specific role do cytotoxic T cells play in clearing a viral infection??
What specific role do cytotoxic T cells play in clearing a viral infection??
How do regulatory T cells contribute to preventing autoimmune reactions?
How do regulatory T cells contribute to preventing autoimmune reactions?
Which of the following explains the role of memory cells in long-term immunity?
Which of the following explains the role of memory cells in long-term immunity?
How does the lymphatic system contribute to adaptive immunity by facilitating interactions between immune cells?
How does the lymphatic system contribute to adaptive immunity by facilitating interactions between immune cells?
How does clonal selection contribute to the specificity of the adaptive immune response?
How does clonal selection contribute to the specificity of the adaptive immune response?
During B cell sensitization, what is the key event that prepares the B cell to respond to its specific antigen?
During B cell sensitization, what is the key event that prepares the B cell to respond to its specific antigen?
Which of the following describes the role of the thymus in T cell maturation?
Which of the following describes the role of the thymus in T cell maturation?
How is the activation of the complement system linked to both innate and adaptive immunity?
How is the activation of the complement system linked to both innate and adaptive immunity?
How does inflammation represent a critical link between innate and adaptive immunity?
How does inflammation represent a critical link between innate and adaptive immunity?
Which of the following is a key difference between active and passive immunity?
Which of the following is a key difference between active and passive immunity?
Why are vaccines considered a form of artificially acquired active immunity?
Why are vaccines considered a form of artificially acquired active immunity?
Why might certain pathogens, like viruses, evade the humoral (antibody-mediated) immune response?
Why might certain pathogens, like viruses, evade the humoral (antibody-mediated) immune response?
How do primary lymphoid organs differ from secondary lymphoid organs in their role in the immune system?
How do primary lymphoid organs differ from secondary lymphoid organs in their role in the immune system?
Flashcards
Insulin
Insulin
Hormone that lowers blood glucose levels by promoting glucose uptake into cells.
Inhibiting Hormones (IH)
Inhibiting Hormones (IH)
Hormones produced by the hypothalamus that inhibit the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary.
Alarm Phase
Alarm Phase
The initial stage of the body's stress response, characterized by mobilization of energy reserves, mainly glucose.
Melatonin
Melatonin
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Effect of Insulin
Effect of Insulin
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Parathyroid Cells
Parathyroid Cells
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Effect of Prolactin (PRL)
Effect of Prolactin (PRL)
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Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
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Release of Calcitonin
Release of Calcitonin
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Positive Feedback
Positive Feedback
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Adrenal Gland
Adrenal Gland
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Insulin Targets
Insulin Targets
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Calcitonin
Calcitonin
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Inhibiting Hormones (IH) Target
Inhibiting Hormones (IH) Target
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Alpha Cells
Alpha Cells
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Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Target
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Target
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Anterior Pituitary Hormones
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
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Resistance Phase
Resistance Phase
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Hormonal Stimulation
Hormonal Stimulation
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Pinealocytes
Pinealocytes
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Pancreas
Pancreas
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Growth Hormone (GH)
Growth Hormone (GH)
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Releasing Hormones (RH)
Releasing Hormones (RH)
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Thryoid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) Target
Thryoid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) Target
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Cranial
Cranial
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Oxytocin
Oxytocin
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Pancreas
Pancreas
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Pancreas
Pancreas
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Follicular cells
Follicular cells
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adrenal gland
adrenal gland
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Effect of melatonin
Effect of melatonin
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Neural stimulation
Neural stimulation
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Effect of T3 and T4
Effect of T3 and T4
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Mammary glands
Mammary glands
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Only after presentation of a foreign antigen
Only after presentation of a foreign antigen
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Sensitization
Sensitization
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Red bone marrow
Red bone marrow
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Helper T cells
Helper T cells
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Which T cell recognizes and binds to B cells?
Which T cell recognizes and binds to B cells?
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Secondary Immune Response
Secondary Immune Response
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Physical Barrier Function
Physical Barrier Function
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Secondary Response
Secondary Response
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Thymus Secretion
Thymus Secretion
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B Cell Activation
B Cell Activation
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Immunity at Birth
Immunity at Birth
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Self-Antigen Reaction
Self-Antigen Reaction
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Cytotoxic T Cells
Cytotoxic T Cells
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Volume in Lungs
Volume in Lungs
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Air to Lung
Air to Lung
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Lungs Aid In
Lungs Aid In
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Diaphragm Muscles
Diaphragm Muscles
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Tertiary Bronchi
Tertiary Bronchi
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Skeletal Muscles Pull
Skeletal Muscles Pull
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The Body Needs
The Body Needs
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Outgoing Air
Outgoing Air
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Study Notes
Hormones
- Insulin antagonizes glucagon.
- Inhibiting hormones (IH) are produced by the hypothalamus.
- Melatonin is produced by pinealocytes.
- The effect of insulin is decreased blood glucose.
- Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is produced by parathyroid cells.
- The effect of prolactin (PRL) is milk production.
- The pituitary gland is the master endocrine gland.
- Humoral stimulation causes the release of calcitonin.
- In a positive feedback loop, as hormone 2 levels increase, hormone 1 levels increase.
- Catecholamines are released into circulation by the adrenal gland.
- Insulin targets the liver, muscle, and adipocytes.
- Calcitonin antagonizes parathyroid hormone (PTH).
- Inhibiting hormones (IH) target the anterior pituitary.
- Glucagon is produced by alpha cells.
- Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) targets the adrenal gland.
- The anterior pituitary releases 9 hormones into circulation.
- The resistance phase is the second phase of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS).
- Hormonal stimulation causes the release of growth hormone (GH).
- Pinealocytes are located in the pineal gland.
- Beta cells are located in the pancreas.
- Growth hormone (GH) is released into circulation by the anterior pituitary.
- Releasing hormones (RH) are produced by the hypothalamus.
- Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) targets the thyroid.
- The pineal gland is located in the cranial region.
- Neural stimulation causes the release of oxytocin.
- The pancreas contains islets of Langerhans.
- Alpha cells are located in the pancreas.
- Follicular cells are located in the thyroid.
- Androgens are released into circulation by the adrenal gland.
- The effect of melatonin is feeling sleepy.
- Neural stimulation causes the release of melatonin.
- The effect of triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) is increased metabolic rate.
- Prolactin (PRL) targets the mammary glands.
Immunity
- Adaptive immunity is present only after presentation of a foreign antigen.
- Sensitization is the process by which B cells take in and present an antigen.
- B cell differentiation is completed in the lymph node.
- Helper T cells activate B cells.
- Helper T cells recognize and bind to B cells.
- The secondary immune response develops faster.
- The lymphatic vessels transport lymphocytes.
- Lymphatic vessels do no contribute to the maintenance of blood volume but they do Increase edema.
- Innate immunity is present at birth.
- Lymph nodes are located in the mucosal membranes and mediastinum.
- A physical barrier in immunity keeps antigens out of the body.
- The function of the spleen is to filter old red blood cells out of the blood, filter pathogens out of the lymph and monitor peripheral antigens.
- Edema from the left arm is collected by the thoracic duct.
- Hematopoiesis produces leukocytes, erythrocytes, and platelets.
- Lymphatic vessels transport lymphocytes and removes and filter antigens from peripheral tissues.
- Lymphoid stem cells in the bone marrow give rise to T cells.
- The thymus plays a role in the development of B-cells.
- Cytotoxic T cells identify infected or foreign cells and destroy them.
- Appendicitis is inflammation of the appendix.
- Phagocytes create an inhospitable environment for foreign cells.
- The number of antibodies produced in a secondary response is greater compared to a primary response.
- Neither blood nor lymph capillaries have valve openings. Only lymphatic capillaries do
- An autoimmune reaction is when the body generates an immune reaction against a self-antigen.
- The thymus creates and releases thymosins.
- Once a T cell is activated; hemostasis occurs.
- Lymphopoiesis occurs once a T cell is activated.
- Helper T Cells are required to be present in order for B cells to become activated.
- Immune surveillance alerts surrounding tissue of local infection.
- Lymphatic vessels transport fluid from peripheral tissue to veins.
- Lymphatic vessels begin in capillary beds and end in the venous system.
- Interferons create an inhospitable environment for foreign cells.
- A secondary lymphatic tissue monitors antigens.
Respiratory System
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The upper respiratory system includes the Nasopharynx, Nasal cavity, Larynx and External nare.
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The primary (main) bronchi aid in respiration.
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The number of nasal conchae located in the left side of the nose is Four.
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When air passes through the respiratory structures during INHALATION The correct order is: Primary bronchus, Secondary bronchus, Tertiary bronchus, Terminal bronchiole and Respiratory bronchiole.
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Bronchus, trachea and larynx are the correct order of the respiratory tract as air passes through them OUT of the body.
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The tertiary (segmental) bronchi assist in respiration.
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Nasal conchae are part of the lower respiratory system.
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The total amount of air in the lungs after forceful inhalation is vital capacity VC; and a forceful exhalation decreases lung volume.
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During quiet breathing exhalation; passive muscle recoil is involved. The movement of air into and out of the lungs is ventilation.
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The parts of the respiratory tract listed in the correct order of air passing through them as it travels OUT of the body: Bronchus, trachea, larynx.
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Nasal meatus is located in the craniofacial region.
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The larynx is part of the lower respiratory system.
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Articulation is the manipulation of outgoing sounds by structures in the oral cavity to create speech.
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The nasal meatus is located in the craniofacial region.
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The external nare is part of the upper respiratory system.
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During inhalation, as air passes through the nasopharynx, it will enter the oropharynx.
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Hypoventilation is a lower-than-normal breathing rate.
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During forced breathing, exhalation involves both active contractions and passive recoil.
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The function of the external nares is to provide an entrance into and exit out of the body for air.
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The epithelial covering of the larynx is a mucosal membrane.
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The primary (main) bronchus delivers air into the left lung.
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The thyroid cartilage is commonly referred to as the 'Adam's Apple'.
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The pulmonary lobules aid in respiration.
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The epithelial covering of the laryngopharynx is stratified squamous epithelium.
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The epiglottis is made of cartilage tissue.
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When expiratory muscles are activated, the volume in the lungs decreases.
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The function of the trachea is to trap particles in the incoming air before they enter the lungs.
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There are three nasal conchae located in the left side of the nose.
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The trachea is part of the lower respiratory system.
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The primary (main) bronchi aid in conduction.
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The correct order that air passes through the respiratory structures during INHALATION is 1, 3, 5, 4, 2 (Primary bronchus, Secondary bronchus, Tertiary bronchus, Terminal bronchiole, Respiratory bronchiole).
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The parts of the respiratory tract listed in the correct order of air passing through them as it travels OUT of the body: Bronchus, trachea, larynx.
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The diaphragm belongs to inspiratory muscles
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The tertiary (segmental) bronchi aid in conduction.
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During inhalation, the pressure in the lungs is less than the pressure of air outside of the body.
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IRV + ERV + TV = VC (Vital Capacity).
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During quiet breathing, exhalation involves passive muscle recoil.
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The correct order that air passes through the portions of the pharynx during exhalation 1, 3, 2 (Laryngopharynx, Oropharynx, Nasopharynx).
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Ventilation is the movement of air into and out of the lungs.
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In order to cause inhalation, skeletal muscles pull up on the thoracic cage.
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The total amount of air that can be found in the lungs after a forceful inhalation is called the total lung capacity (TLC).
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Adding together the tidal volume (TV), inspiratory reserve volume (IRV), expiratory reserve volume (ERV), and residual volume (RV) provides the value for the total lung capacity (TLC).
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In order to cause exhalation, the body needs to decrease lung volume.
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Description
Overview of hormones, their production sites, and their effects on the body. Key hormones discussed include insulin, glucagon, melatonin, parathyroid hormone, and prolactin. Also covers the roles of glands such as the pituitary, pineal, and adrenal glands.
