Endocrine System and Respiratory system

Endocrine System

• Antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin are released by the posterior pituitary gland.
• The parathyroid gland releases parathyroid hormone (PTH).
• The anterior pituitary gland releases luteinizing hormone.
• The thyroid gland releases thyroid hormones, which are stimulated by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).
• Oxytocin stimulates the contraction of the prostate and vas deferens during male sexual arousal.
• Insulin decreases blood sugar, while glucagon increases it.
• Aldosterone stimulates the body to retain sodium and water, which is important for maintaining blood pressure.
• Thyroid hormones increase energy production, stimulate protein synthesis, and speed up the repair of damaged tissues.
• Calcitonin lowers blood calcium by activating osteoblasts, which use excess blood calcium to build new bone tissue.
• Cortisol decreases protein synthesis and inflammation.

Hormone-Related Disorders

• Cushing's syndrome is caused by too much cortisol production.
• Dwarfism is a condition in which too little growth hormone is produced in childhood.
• Acromegaly is caused by a pituitary tumor that produces excess growth hormone.
• Graves' disease is an autoimmune disorder in which antibodies attack the thyroid gland, causing it to produce too many thyroid hormones.
• Myxedema is a condition in which the thyroid gland produces too little thyroid hormone.

Respiratory System

• The nasal cavity is divided by the nasal septum.
• Cilia are tiny hair-like structures in the airways that push mucus toward the pharynx.
• The nasal conchae are bony structures that project into the nasal cavity and help to warm, humidify, and filter the air we breathe.
• Alveoli are tiny air sacs surrounded by capillaries where gas exchange occurs.
• The pleura is a double-layered membrane that surrounds the lungs, allowing them to move freely in the thorax.
• Bronchioles are the part of the respiratory tree to which the alveoli are attached.
• The glottis is the opening between the vocal cords.

Breathing Process

• When air enters the lungs, the diaphragm flattens, and the intercostal muscles raise the ribs, increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity.
• When air leaves the lungs, the diaphragm relaxes, and the intercostal muscles lower the ribs, decreasing the volume of the thoracic cavity.
• The medulla oblongata and pons exert control on the respiratory rhythm.
• The pH of the blood, carbon dioxide levels, and pain can affect the respiratory rate.

Lung Capacities

• Tidal volume is the amount of air that moves in or out of the lungs during a normal breath.
• Inspiratory reserve volume is the amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled after a normal inhalation.
• Expiratory reserve volume is the amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal exhalation.
• Residual volume is the amount of air that remains in the lungs at all times.
• Vital capacity is the sum of tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, and expiratory reserve volume.
• Total lung capacity is the total amount of air that the lungs can hold.