Emotion Theories and Clever Hans Phenomenon

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Questions and Answers

What is a characteristic of effortful processes?

They occur without conscious awareness.

They do not interfere with the execution of other processes.

They improve with practice. (correct)

They require no mental resources.

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of automatic processes?

They can be improved with practice. (correct)

They do not interfere with other processes.

They occur without consciousness.

They require little mental effort.

How does the presence of others typically affect an individual's likelihood to help in an emergency?

It guarantees that help will be provided.

It reduces the likelihood of help. (correct)

It has no effect on the likelihood of help.

It increases the likelihood of help.

What is a common reason for the bystander effect?

Diffusion of responsibility. Signup and view all the answers

Which individual differences do NOT influence automatic processes?

Sleep quality. Signup and view all the answers

What does kin selection theory emphasize in terms of altruistic behavior?

Altruistic behavior helps close relatives who share similar genes. Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario best exemplifies the reciprocity theory?

Two friends exchanging favors over time. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of social dilemmas?

The self-interest of individuals typically leads to a worse outcome for the group. Signup and view all the answers

How do communal relationships differ from exchange relationships?

Exchange relationships emphasize concern about the equity of give-and-take. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes the Big Five personality traits as per Fiske’s model?

They describe enduring dispositions across various contexts. Signup and view all the answers

What is the process of changing sensory input into a storable format in the brain called?

Encoding Signup and view all the answers

Which type of processing leads to better memory retention?

Deep processing Signup and view all the answers

What is the typical duration of Short-Term Memory (STM)?

20-30 seconds Signup and view all the answers

What memory system holds a brief trace of sensory input for a fraction of a second?

Sensory Memory Signup and view all the answers

What technique involves organizing information into meaningful units to enhance memory?

Chunking Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes a limitation of Short-Term Memory?

Holds approximately 7±2 items Signup and view all the answers

What effect does divided attention have on memory encoding?

Reduces encoding effectiveness Signup and view all the answers

What is the process of creating relationships between new information and existing knowledge known as?

Elaborative rehearsal Signup and view all the answers

Which brain structure is primarily involved in encoding and consolidating explicit memories?

Hippocampus Signup and view all the answers

What mechanism primarily underpins memory storage through synaptic changes?

Long-term potentiation (LTP) Signup and view all the answers

Which type of interference occurs when old memories block the formation of new ones?

Proactive Interference Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the prefrontal cortex in memory processes?

Working memory and decision-making Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon describes the subconscious suppression of traumatic memories?

Repression Signup and view all the answers

Which memory-related process requires stabilization after initial encoding, often occurring during sleep?

Consolidation Signup and view all the answers

What type of amnesia is characterized by the inability to form new memories?

Anterograde Amnesia Signup and view all the answers

Which sensory experience is considered the strongest trigger for emotional memories and nostalgia?

Smell Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes an experiment in research design?

Manipulation of independent variables while holding others constant Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines a dependent variable?

The variable that is caused by the independent variable Signup and view all the answers

In a within-subjects experiment, what is the key characteristic?

Each subject is tested under all conditions of the independent variable Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant limitation of correlational studies?

They cannot determine if a change in one variable causes a change in another Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes 'third variables' in a correlational study?

Unaccounted variables that influence both studied variables Signup and view all the answers

What does random assignment achieve in between-group experiments?

Prevents biases in assigning subjects to groups Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario represents bi-directionality in research?

Variable A and B influence each other in a feedback loop Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'coincidence' refer to in the context of correlational studies?

The relationship between two observed variables is due to random chance Signup and view all the answers

Which rule states that the tendency of two features to group together increases as the distance between them decreases?

Proximity Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome when a conditioned response is performed after a period of extinction?

Spontaneous recovery Signup and view all the answers

Which concept refers to the unique pathways that sensory neurons take in the central nervous system?

Transduction Signup and view all the answers

In operant conditioning, what is the term for reinforcing a behavior intermittently rather than consistently?

Partial reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

What does a symmetrical region in visual perception most likely indicate?

It belongs to the figure Signup and view all the answers

What type of conditioning involves learning to associate a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus?

Classical conditioning Signup and view all the answers

Which behaviorism concept describes the likelihood of a behavior being repeated based on its consequences?

Law of effect Signup and view all the answers

Which type of reinforcement occurs when an unpleasant stimulus is removed following a desired behavior?

Negative reinforcement Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Task 1: Love Language

Three theories of emotion: common sense, James', and Schachter's
Common Sense Theory: stimulus -> perception -> emotion -> bodily arousal
James' Theory: stimulus -> perception -> bodily arousal -> emotion
Schachter's Theory: stimulus -> perception -> bodily arousal -> emotion -> intensity
Bridge experiment, jealousy experiment, and roller coaster experiment used to demonstrate arousal transfer
Excitation transfer theory proposes that residual arousal from a prior experience can influence emotional responses to new stimuli. This theory was introduced by Dolf Zillmann in the 1970s.

Task 2: Clever Hans

Facts are objective statements agreed upon by observers
Example: Horse's hoof taps appearing to answer questions
Theories explain existing facts and make predictions about new ones
Example: Osten's theory of horse intelligence, Pfungst's theory of visual cues
Hypotheses are predictions about new facts based on a theory
Example: Hans could answer verbally stated problems correctly
Skepticism and careful observation are crucial in science. The simpler explanation is preferable when multiple options exist.

Task 3: My Brain and Me

Brain structure is complex with specialized regions for specific functions
Brain regions handling different cognitive and sensory functions include the brainstem, cerebellum, and cerebral hemispheres (occipital, parietal, temporal, frontal lobes).
Wrinkles (gyri and sulci) increase surface area of the brain to maximize neuron density
Cerebrospinal fluid cushions the brain and spinal cord, and helps maintain consistent pressure
Brainstem controls vital functions (breathing, heart rate), cerebellum is for motor learning, hypothalamus regulates bodily drives
Cerebral hemispheres support higher cognitive functions like perception, language, and problem-solving.
Limbic areas include the amygdala and hippocampus
Brain imaging techniques are Electroencephalography (EEG), magnetoencephalography (MEG), positron emission tomography (PET), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI), computed tomography (CT).
Split-brain patients provide insight into hemisphere specialization

Task 4: Making Sense of the World

Sensory process: Stimulus -> physiological response -> Sensory experience
Weber/Fechner's law: Perception of stimulus magnitude is related to its physical magnitude.
Psychophysics relates sensations to physical stimuli
Sensory thresholds refer to the lowest intensity of stimulus detected
Absolute threshold is the lowest detectable intensity, different threshold (jnd) is the smallest detectable difference.
Bottom-up processing works from senses to the brain, top-down processing uses knowledge to influence perception
Gestalt principles (proximity, similarity, continuity, closure) help group elements together in perception
Sensory coding: stronger stimuli produce larger receptor potentials and quicker rates of firing in neurons
Sensory experience results from physiological responses to physical stimuli
Sensory receptors convert physical stimuli into electrical changes (transduction)
Adaptation: reduced responsiveness of sensory systems with continuous stimulation

Task 5: Blank stares and Bobo Dolls

Classical conditioning: learning through association (Pavlov)
Operant conditioning: learning through consequences (Thorndike)
Operant Conditioning
- Law of Effect; Shaping; Extinction; Partial Reinforcement; Continuous Reinforcement; Fixed-ratio Schedules; Variable-ratio Schedules; Fixed-interval Schedules; Variable-interval Schedules; Reinforcement (negative & positive); Punishment (negative & positive); Discriminative Stimuli.
Evaluative conditioning: associating a stimulus with a positive or negative response
Conditioned hunger, sexual arousal, and drug reactions are types of learned responses

Task 6: The Smell of Cookies

Encoding: transforming sensory input into a brain-readable format
Attention & Levels of processing: Focus and depth of analysis affect memory
Memory storage: short term and long term memory.
Sensory memory: very brief storage of sensory information (iconic and echoic)
Chunking: organizing information into meaningful units
Elaborative rehearsal: using existing knowledge to form connections to new information to create stronger memories
Retrieval: accessing the stored information to use it in the present

Task 7: Brief History of Yourself

Developmental psychology studies how people change over time, studying milestones in infants and children
Infant abilities include habituation/dishabituation, which means babies show increasingly less time focusing on a stimulus once they are used to it, and increasingly more when a new stimulus is shown.
Assimilation and accommodation are key concepts used to explain how children develop.
Assimilation: adding new experiences into existing schemas/thought patterns.
Accommodation: adjusting existing schemas/thoughts to fit with new experiences (requires adaptation)
Cognitive development is explained through schemas.
Cognitive Development: 4 stages (piaget): -sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Each stage describes children and their mental abilities at a particular age.

Task 8: Help!

Bystander effect: less likely to help when in the presence of others
Diffusion of responsibility: individuals may not feel personally responsible for intervening
Pluralistic ignorance: if no one else intervenes, a situation may be seen as non-emergent, and people do not help
Kin selection: altruistic behavior that benefits close relatives helps genes to survive
Reciprocity: altruistic behavior among non-kin, may provide hidden advantage via future cooperation
Social dilemma: individual vs group interests
Residential mobility: length of residence correlates to community-oriented behavior
Altruism: helping another individual at the possible expense of self-preservation
Helping behavior may help survival and reproductive success

Task 9: I'm Different

Personality is a person's general style of engaging with the world
Traits = enduring predispositions, states = temporary behaviors
Five Factor Model describes personality features (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism)
Traits are relatively stable in adults and are influenced by both genetics and environment
Heritability vs. Environment: genetics, social, cultural, forces influence personality

Task X: Additional Concepts

Theory of Mind (ToM) involves understanding one's own thoughts and the beliefs/feelings of others.
Autism has difficulties with social communication and social interaction.

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Description

Explore the fascinating world of emotion theories, including the Common Sense, James', and Schachter's theories. Additionally, delve into the story of Clever Hans, a horse that appeared to answer questions, and the theories behind his behavior. Test your understanding of emotional arousal and the principles of scientific observation.