Intro to Psychology Study Guide PDF

Task 1: Love Language model of primary emotions: the three theories of emotions: common sense theory, james theory, schachter’s theory bridge experiment, jealousy experiment, roller coaster experiment transfer of arousal, misinterpretation of arousal excitation theory = this theory suggests that...

Task 1: Love Language model of primary emotions: the three theories of emotions: common sense theory, james theory, schachter’s theory bridge experiment, jealousy experiment, roller coaster experiment transfer of arousal, misinterpretation of arousal excitation theory = this theory suggests that the emotional response to a particular message or stimulus can be influenced by the residual, or remaining, arousal from a previous experience. Excitation-transfer theory was first proposed by Dolf Zillmann in the 1970s to explain the emotional and physiological processes involved in the transfer of arousal from one situation to another. 1 evolutionary perspectives on emotion A) Please compare and contrast Schachter’s cognition plus feedback and James’ peripheral feedback theories on emotion. Use an example for each theory to illustrate the main difference between the two. (max. 300 words, max. 3 points). Schachter’s cognition plus feedback: This theory emphasizes the interplay between physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation in the experience of emotions. → physiological arousal (stimulus) in which the body reacts with a physiological response (e.g heart pounding). this does not have to be inherently sexual. → brain interprets arousal in context of situation/environment. emotion is shaped by its interpretation. (arousal in the presence of a snarling dog might be labeled as fear, while the same arousal in a joyful setting might be labeled as excitement.) → Schachter suggested that emotions require both a physiological state and a cognitive label to be fully experienced. → Feedback from the body's arousal (e.g., heart pounding) interacts with cognitive processing (e.g., "I'm scared because of the snarling dog") to generate a coherent emotional experience. James’ peripheral feedback: This theory emphasises that emotions arise from the perception of physiological changes in the body. → Emotions are not the cause of bodily reactions; rather, bodily reactions are the cause of emotions. (Example: You don’t tremble because you’re afraid; you feel afraid because you tremble.) → (Stimulus → Physiological Changes → Emotion) A stimulus (e.g., seeing a bear) triggers a physiological response (e.g., increased heart rate, sweating), and the mind interprets these changes as a specific emotion (e.g., fear). → The perception of physical changes in the body—like a racing heart, tense muscles, or dry mouth—creates the emotional experience. COMPARISONS AND CONTRASTS (with the common sense theory added) 1. Sequence of Emotional Components → Common Sense Theory: Emotion arises first, followed by physiological responses. - Example: You see a snake → You feel fear → Your heart races. 2 → James’ Peripheral Feedback: Emotions are the result of perceiving physiological responses. - Example: You see a snake → Your heart races → You feel fear. → Schachter’s Cognition-Plus-Feedback: Emotions depend on physiological arousal interpreted through cognitive appraisal. - Example: You see a snake → Your heart races → You interpret the situation as dangerous → You feel fear. 2. Role of Cognition → Common Sense Theory: Emotions are intuitive and don’t require conscious thought. → James’ Theory: Emotions are automatic and arise directly from bodily feedback, with minimal cognitive involvement. → Schachter’s Theory: Cognitive appraisal is essential to label the arousal and differentiate between emotions. - Example: Increased heart rate could be labeled as fear if caused by a snake or excitement if caused by a surprise party. 3. Flexibility in Emotional Experience → Common Sense Theory: Emotional experiences are fixed based on stimulus (e.g., a snake will always cause fear). → James’ Theory: Emotional experience depends on specific physiological patterns but is less flexible. → Schachter’s Theory: Emotional experience is highly flexible and varies with context and cognitive interpretation. B) The rollercoaster study by Meston and Frohlich (2003) is a wonderful example of a field- study providing evidence for the excitation transfer theory by Zillman (1971). Field studies, however, do have some drawbacks. Please design a laboratory experiment in which you can test the findings by Meston and Frohlich in a more controlled setting (make sure to include dependent and independent variables as well as the procedure). (max. 300 words, max. 4 points) i asked chatgpt to do this because i most likely will not pick a question like this LOL. but here’s the answer in case anyone feels they would pick this over C. Independent Variable (IV): 3  1. Arousal Condition: ○ High Arousal (e.g., participants run on a treadmill for 2 minutes at 80% of maximum heart rate). ○ Low Arousal (e.g., participants walk slowly on a treadmill for 2 minutes). 2. Timing of Evaluation: ○ Immediate (within 1 minute post-exercise). ○ Delayed (10 minutes post-exercise). Dependent Variable (DV): Ratings of attractiveness: Participants rate photos of individuals on a scale (e.g., 1–10 for physical attractiveness). Procedure: 1. Recruitment and Pre-Screening: Recruit adult participants and screen for health conditions to ensure safety during physical activity. 2. Baseline Measure: Participants rate a set of neutral photos for attractiveness before any physical activity. 3. Arousal Manipulation: Randomly assign participants to either the high-arousal (vigorous exercise) or low-arousal (gentle exercise) condition. 4. Timing Variation: After exercise, participants in each condition are randomly split into two groups to rate a new set of photos either immediately or after a 10-minute rest period. 5. Data Collection: Participants rate the new set of photos for attractiveness. 6. Debriefing: Explain the purpose of the study and address any concerns. Hypothesis: Participants in the high-arousal and immediate evaluation condition will give significantly higher attractiveness ratings than those in the low-arousal or delayed evaluation conditions, supporting the excitation transfer theory. Advantages: This design controls for external factors (e.g., environmental distractions) and systematically manipulates arousal and timing to isolate their effects on perceived attractiveness. C) Psychological phenomena are rarely explained by a single theory or model. This also goes for observed gender differences in jealousy among men and women for example. Evolutionary, learning, and neurologically oriented psychologists will have different explanations for the differences in aggression. Please pick two out of these three perspectives and provide an explanation they would give for this apparent gender difference (max. 300 words, max. 4 points). 4  1. Evolutionary Perspective: From an evolutionary psychology viewpoint, gender differences in jealousy can be explained by differences in reproductive strategies. According to this theory, men and women evolved different mechanisms to maximize their reproductive success. → Men: Men are more likely to experience jealousy in response to sexual infidelity. This is because men face the risk of paternal uncertainty—they cannot be sure whether a child is theirs unless they are sure of the mother’s sexual exclusivity. Thus, men’s jealousy serves as a mechanism to guard against potential infidelity and ensure the child is genetically theirs. → Women: Women, on the other hand, are more likely to experience jealousy in response to emotional infidelity. This is because women historically faced a threat to their investment in offspring, particularly in terms of resources and support from a partner. Emotional infidelity signals a potential loss of resources and attention, which would jeopardize the survival of their offspring. 2. Learning Perspective: The learning theory emphasizes the role of socialization and cultural influences in shaping gendered behavior. According to this perspective, jealousy is learned through societal norms, parental influence, and observation of behaviors. → Men: Men may learn to express jealousy more aggressively, especially if they are socialized to believe that their worth is tied to possessiveness or dominance over their partner. Cultural norms often encourage men to view romantic relationships as property rights, which might lead them to feel possessive and, therefore, more jealous of sexual or emotional threats. → Women: Women may be socialized to value emotional connection in relationships and are taught to express jealousy in ways that emphasize emotional closeness rather than physical aggression. They may be more sensitive to emotional infidelity, learning to see it as a threat to their emotional bond and sense of security. 5 Task 2: clever hans; What is Science Lessons from Clever Hans Facts, theories, and hypotheses Fact: also referred to as an observation, is an objective statement, usually based on direct observation, that reasonable observers agree is true. Ex. When Hans was tested in the manner typically employed by von Osten, the horse’s hoof taps or headshakes gave the appearance that he was answering questions correctly. Theory: an idea, or a conceptual model, that is designed to explain existing facts and make predictions about new facts that might be discovered. Ex: Osten to develop his theory that horses have humanlike intelligence. Ex2: Pfungst developed the more specific theory that the horse responded to visual cues produced by people who were present and knew the answers. Hypothesis: any prediction about new facts that is made from a theory Ex: once he conceived his theory, he used it to hypothesize that his horse, Hans, could learn to give correct answers to verbally stated problems and questions. Ex2: This theory led Pfungst to hypothesize that Hans would not answer questions correctly if fitted with blinders or if asked questions to which nobody present knew the answer. Lessons 1. The value of skepticism: People are fascinated by extraordinary claims and often act as though they want to believe them. Instead of setting out to prove them correct, he set out to prove them wrong. His skepticism led him to look more carefully; to notice what others had missed; to think of an alternative, more mundane explanation; and to pit the mundane explanation against the astonishing one in controlled tests. a. Parsimony: the simpler the explanation is, the better it tends to be. Basically, when there are two or more explanations that are equally able to account for a phenomenon, the simplest explanation is usually preferred. 2. The value of careful observations under controlled conditions 6  3. The problem of observer-expectancy effects: In studies of humans and other sentient animals, the observers (the people conducting the research) may unintentionally communicate to subjects (the individuals being studied) their expectations about how they “should” behave, and the subjects, intentionally or not, may respond by doing just what the researchers expect. Types of research strategies A useful way to categorize the various research strategies used by psychologists is to think of them as varying along the following three dimensions: 1. The research design, of which there are three basic types: experiments, correlational studies, and descriptive studies. 2. The setting in which the study is conducted, of which there are two basic types: field and laboratory. 3. The data-collection method, of which there are two basic types: self-report and observation. Research designs Experiments An experiment can be defined as a procedure in which a researcher systematically manipulates (varies) one or more independent variables and looks for changes in one or more dependent variables while keeping all other variables constant. An experiment is the most direct and conclusive approach to testing a hypothesis about a cause–effect relationship between two variables. Variable: anything that can vary. ○ Independent variable: the variable that is hypothesized to cause some effect on another variable (factors that influence measures of behavior) ○ Dependent variable: the variable that is hypothesized to be affected (usually measures of behavior) Subjects: The people or animals that are studied in any research study ○ Within-subject experiment: each subject is tested in each of the different conditions of the independent variable (that is, the subject is repeatedly tested) 7  ○ Between group experiments: there is a separate group of subjects for each different condition of the independent variable. Random assignment is regularly used in between-group experiments to ensure that the subjects are not assigned in a way that could bias the results. Correlational studies Correlational study: can be defined as a study in which the researcher does not manipulate any variable, but observes or measures two or more already exist- ing variables to find relationships between them. Correlational studies can identify relationships between variables, which allow us to make predictions about one variable based on knowledge of another; but such studies do not tell us in any direct way whether change in one variable is the cause of change in another. Cause and effect cannot be determined from a correlational study ○ Directionality: Difficulty in knowing which variable is the cause and which is the effect. ○ Bi-directionality: Both variables may influence each other, creating a feedback loop. ○ Third variables: An unaccounted variable that affects both studied variables, leading to a spurious correlation. ○ Coincidence: The observed relationship could be due to random chance, not a causal link. Descriptive studies Descriptive study: Sometimes the aim of research is to describe the behavior of an individual or set of individuals without assessing relationships between different variables. Some descriptive studies are narrow in focus, concentrating on one specific aspect of behavior, and others are broad, aiming to learn as much as possible about the habits of a particular group of people or species of animal. Research settings Laboratory study: any research study in which the subjects are brought to a specially designated area that has been set up to facilitate the researcher’s collection of data or control over environmental conditions. 8  Experiments are most often conducted in the laboratory because greater control of variables is possible Field study: any research study conducted in a setting in which the researcher does not have control over the experiences that a subject has. Correlational and descriptive studies are more often conducted in the field. Advantage/Disadvantage: The laboratory allows the researcher to collect data under more uniform, controlled conditions than are possible in the field. However, the strangeness or artificiality of the laboratory may induce behaviors that obscure those the researcher wants to study. External validity: Do we want to be able to generalize findings to other contexts? (Ecological validity, to real life settings) Field is more valid Internal validity: Can my relationship be explained by other factors than my independent factors? Lab is more valid Data-Collection Methods Self-report methods: procedures in which people are asked to rate or describe their own behavior or mental state in some way. Questionnaires, interviews, make assessments, introspection (the personal observations of one’s thoughts, perceptions, and feelings) ○ the validity of such data is limited by the subjects’ ability to observe and remember their own behaviors or moods and by their willingness to report those observations frankly, without distorting them to look good or to please the researcher Observational methods: all procedures by which researchers observe and record the behavior of interest rather than relying on subjects’ self-reports. Tests: the researcher deliberately presents problems, tasks, or situations to which the subject responds. ○ Tests are convenient and easily scored but are by nature artificial, and their relevance to everyday behavior is not always clear. Naturalistic observation: the researcher avoids interfering with the subjects’ behavior. 9  ○ Hawthorne effect: This result, however, was not due to the specific factor being changed, but simply to the subjects’ knowledge that they were being watched and their belief that they were receiving special treatment. Habituation: Technique to minimize Hawthorne effect, a decline in response when a stimulus is repeatedly or continuously present. ○ Naturalistic observations allow researchers to learn firsthand about their subjects’ natural behaviors, but the practicality of such methods is limited by the great amount of time they take, the difficulty of observing ongoing behavior without interfering with it, and the difficulty of coding results in a form that can be used for statistical analysis. Statistical methods in psychology Descriptive statistics: include all numerical methods for summarizing a set of data. Mean: simply the arithmetic average, determined by adding the scores and dividing the sum by the number of scores. Median: the center score, determined by ranking the scores from highest to lowest and finding the score that has the same number of scores above it as below it, that is, the score representing the 50th percentile. Variability: the degree to which the numbers in the set differ from one another and from their mean. ○ Standard deviation: common measure of variability Correlation coefficient: measures the strength and direction of the relationship (ranges from –1 to 1) ○ The sign indicates the direction of the correlation (positive or negative). In a positive correlation, an increase in one variable coincides with a tendency for the other variable to increase; in a negative correlation, an increase in one variable coincides with a tendency for the other variable to decrease. ○ The absolute value of the correlation coefficient (the value with sign removed) indicates the strength of the correlation. ○ A correlation close to zero (0) means that the two variables are statistically unrelated, knowing the value of one variable does not help you predict the value of the other. 10 Inferential statistics: are procedures for calculating the probability that the observed results could derive from chance alone. P (for probability) or level of significance: When two means are being compared, p is the probability that a difference as great as or greater than that observed would occur by chance if, in the larger population, there were no difference between the two means. ○ Statistically significance: if the value of p is less than.05 (5 percent). ○ Elements that go into the calculation of p: 1. The size of the observed effect a. A large effect is less likely to be caused just by chance than is a small one. 2. The number of individual subjects or observations in the study. a. If the number of subjects or observations is huge, then even very small effects will be statistically significant, that is, reflect a “true” difference in the population. 3. The variability of the data within each group. a. The less variability within each group, the more likely the results are to be significant. If all of the scores within each group are close to the group mean, then even a small difference between the means of different groups may be significant. Minimizing bias in psychological research Bias: refers to nonrandom (directed) effects caused by some factor or factors extraneous to the research hypothesis. Sampling biases If the members of a particular group are initially different from those of another group in some systematic way, or are different from the larger population that the researcher is interested in. A sample is biased when it is not representative of the larger population that the researchers are trying to describe. Measurement biases Reliability: A measure is reliable to the degree that it yields similar results each time it is used with a particular subject under a particular set of conditions. 11  ○ Interobserver reliability: the same behavior seen by one observer is also seen by a second observer. Operational definition: specifying exactly what constitutes an example of your dependent measure. To ensure interobserver reliability, most investigations require that at least two independent observers record the target behavior, and these recordings are then compared statistically to deter- mine if the two people are seeing the same things. Validity: A measurement procedure is valid if it measures or predicts what it is intended to measure or predict. ○ Face validity: If common sense tells us that a measurement procedure assesses the intended characteristic ○ Criterion validity: A more certain way to gauge the validity of a measurement procedure is to correlate its scores with another, more direct index (criterion) of the characteristic that we wish to measure or predict. Expectancy biases Observer-expectancy effects: A researcher who desires or expects a subject to respond in a particular way may unintentionally communicate that expectation and thereby influence the subject’s behavior. In addition to influencing subjects’ behavior, observers’ expectations can influence observers’ perceptions or judgments concerning that behavior The best way to prevent observer-expectancy effects is to keep the observer blind—that is, uninformed—about those aspects of the study’s design that could lead him or her to form potentially biasing expectations. Subject-expectancy effects: If different treatments in an experiment induce different expectations in subjects, then those expectations, rather than anything else about the treatments, may account for observed differences in how the subjects respond. Subjects should be kept blind about the treatment they are receiving. Double blind experiment: Any experiment in which both the observer and the subjects are kept blind in this way 12  Placebo: an inactive substance that looks like the drug, and neither the subjects nor the observers know who received the drug and who did not Ethical issues in psychological research Ethical considerations when researching with humans 1. The person’s right to privacy 2. The possibility of discomfort or harm 3. The use of deception (the most controversial ethical issue) a. research deception usually takes the form of benign “white lies,” which are cleared up when the researcher informs the subjects of the true nature of the study after the session has ended 13 Task 3: My brain and me - Brain Composition and Structure: - The brain is a complex network of specialised regions, each responsible for specific functions. - Major structures include the spinal cord, brainstem, cerebellum, and cerebral hemispheres. - The cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes—occipital, parietal, temporal, and frontal—each handling different cognitive and sensory functions. - “wrinkles”: Gyri and sulci Increase the surface area of the brain - allows greater density of neurons within a compact space enable complex cognitive functions folds allow more room for neurons -> support intricate neural networks -> essential for higher- order functions -Cerebrospinal fluid: Surrounds brain & spinal cord -> provides a cushioning effect to protect against impact supplies nutrients removes waste helps maintain consistent pressure within the skull -> important for stable brain function - Brain Functions: - The brainstem controls vital survival functions like breathing and heart rate. - The cerebellum is crucial for movement coordination and motor learning. - The hypothalamus regulates bodily drives, such as hunger and thirst, and manages hormonal activity via the pituitary gland. - The cerebral hemispheres, particularly the cortex, support higher cognitive functions, including perception, language, and problem-solving. - Specialized Brain Regions: - The amygdala and hippocampus play roles in processing emotions and memory. - The cerebral cortex is highly specialised for complex behaviours, with each lobe managing distinct tasks (e.g., occipital lobe for vision, frontal lobe for decision-making and social behaviour). - Hemispheric Specialization: - The left hemisphere typically handles language and analytical processing, while the right is more involved in spatial tasks. 14  - Studies on split-brain patients reveal that each hemisphere can function independently with unique contributions. - Brain Plasticity: - The brain is adaptable, capable of reorganising itself through experience, learning, and in response to injury. - Modern imaging techniques (e.g., fMRI, EEG) have advanced our understanding of brain activity and specialisation. Neuron structure: (Neuron image - Healthline) Brain imaging techniques: Electroencephalography (EEG): Measures electrical activity in the brain via electrodes placed on the scalp. 15  Primarily used to study brain waves, detect abnormalities, and diagnose conditions like epilepsy. Known for excellent temporal (time-based) resolution but limited spatial resolution. Magnetoencephalography (MEG): Detects magnetic fields produced by neural activity in the brain. Used for studying brain function, particularly in understanding timing and sequence of brain activity. Offers higher spatial accuracy than EEG and also has excellent temporal resolution. Positron Emission Tomography (PET): Uses a radioactive tracer injected into the bloodstream to monitor metabolic activity in the brain. Commonly used to detect abnormalities, study brain function, and research mental disorders. Provides a detailed map of metabolic activity but involves exposure to a radioactive substance. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Utilises strong magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of brain structures. Primarily used for studying brain anatomy and detecting tumours, structural anomalies, and other brain injuries. Known for high-resolution anatomical images without exposure to radiation. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI): A specialised type of MRI that measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow (Blood Oxygen Level Dependent or BOLD signal). Widely used in cognitive neuroscience to study active brain areas during various tasks or stimuli. Provides high spatial resolution and is safe for repeated use but has lower temporal resolution than EEG and MEG. Computed Tomography (CT or CAT scan): Uses X-rays to produce cross-sectional images of the brain, providing a view of brain structures. Often used in emergency situations to quickly detect injuries, bleeding, or tumours. 16  Provides a detailed picture of the brain structure but involves exposure to low levels of radiation. Limbic system subcortical structure Brain Timeline: (Modern era is more important) - Ancient Times: - Hippocrates (c. 460–370 BCE): Proposed that the brain is the centre of thought and emotions, challenging the heart-centred view of the mind. - Aristotle (384–322 BCE): Argued that the brain primarily cooled the blood; believed the heart was the seat of intelligence. - 2nd Century CE: - Galen: Roman physician who observed brain injuries in gladiators, reinforcing the idea that the brain was central to sensation and voluntary movement. - 18th Century: - Phrenology (Franz Joseph Gall and Johann Spurzheim): Introduced the idea of brain localization, suggesting personality traits could be mapped on the skull based on skull shape. - 1820s: - Marie-Jean-Pierre Flourens: Conducted experiments to disprove phrenology, proposing the theory of “equipotentiality”—that mental functions are distributed across the brain. - 1848: - Phineas Gage: Railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury. His personality changes after the injury provided early evidence of the brain’s role in behaviour and personality. - 1861: - Paul Broca: Discovered Broca’s area, linking a specific brain region to speech production based on studies of patients with speech impairments. - 1920s: 17  - Karl Lashley: Proposed the "law of mass action," suggesting that memory and learning are distributed across the cortex. - 1940s: - Wilder Penfield: Used electrical stimulation on conscious patients to map brain functions and retrieve memories, contributing to the understanding of functional localization. - Split-Brain Research: Studies by Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga on patients with severed corpus callosum advanced understanding of hemispheric specialisation. - 1950s: - Patient H.M.: Underwent surgery that resulted in severe memory loss. Studies of H.M. became foundational in the study of memory and the role of the hippocampus. - 1960s-70s: - Brain Imaging Advances: Introduction of EEG, PET, and later MRI and fMRI, allowed visualisation of brain activity and enhanced understanding of brain localization. - 1980s-90s: - Gene Manipulation and Transgenic Mice: Enabled researchers to study the genetic basis of brain function and neurodevelopment. - Modern Era: - Functional Imaging and Cognitive Neuroscience: Further development in imaging technologies and interdisciplinary studies have enabled advanced insights into the brain’s role in cognition, emotions, and mental health 18 Task 4: making sense of the world visual agnosia Sensory process: physical stimulus - physiological response - sensory experience Webber/fechners law Measurement of sensory: absolute threshold/different threshold Weber’s law: jnd = kM ( the jnd [just-noticeable difference] for stimulus magnitude is a constant proportion of the magnitude of the original stimulus.) Fechner’s law: S = c log M (the magnitude of the sensory experience of a stimulus is directly proportional to the logarithm of the physical magnitude of the stimulus.) important - Bottom up top down processing. control that comes from higher up in the brain as top-down control, and they refer to control that comes more directly from the sensory input as bottom-up control. Bottom-up processes bring in the sensory information that is actually present in the stimulus. Top-down processes bring to bear the results of calculations based on that sensory information plus other information, such as that derived from previous experience and from the larger context in which the stimulus appears. Bottom-up processing provides detailed sensory information. Top-down processing guides interpretation based on context and past experiences. Gestalt principles - proximity, similarity, continuity, connectedness, and closure Gestalt grouping rules: A set of rules describing which elements in an image will appear to group together. The original list was assembled by members of the Gestalt school of thought. 19  good continuation: A Gestalt grouping rule stating that two elements will tend to group together if they seem to lie on the same contour. similarity: A Gestalt grouping rule stating that the tendency of two features to group together will increase as the similarity between them increases. proximity: A Gestalt grouping rule stating that the tendency of two features to group together will increase as the distance between them decreases (weaker)Parallelism: A rule for figure-ground assignment stating that parallel con-tours are likely to belong to the same figure. (weaker)Symmetry: A rule for figure-ground assignment stating that symmetrical regions are more likely to be seen as figures. Sensory coding Coding of stimulus quantity results from the fact that stronger stimuli produce larger receptor potentials, which in turn produce faster rates of action potentials in sensory neurons. Sensory Adaptation Optical illusions Temporal processing multisensory integration Transduction - Sensory receptors are specialized structures that respond to physical stimuli by producing electrical changes that can initiate neural impulses in sensory neurons -> Regardless of whether they come from one location or many, the neurons for any given sense lead to pathways in the central nervous system that are unique to that sense. These pathways send their messages to many 20 different parts of the brain, including specific sensory areas of the cerebral cortex—including areas devoted to vision, hearing, and touch. 21 Task 5: Blank stares and Bobo Dolls Classical conditioning - reflex- stimulus- response- frequency Pavlov - classical conditioning conditioned stimulus conditioned response unconditioned stimulus unconditioned response extinction of conditioned responses spontaneous recovery generalization discrimination training behaviorism- Pavlov stimulus-stimulus theory - classical cond. stimulus- response - classical cond. learned expectancy Watson - fear conditioning example - baby & bunny’s - Little albert experiment Evaluative conditioning conditioned hunger conditioned sexual arousal conditioned drug reactions conditioned compensatory reactions to drugs conditioned reactions as causes to drug tolerance drug relapse after withdrawal ^not important (simply good examples) operant conditioning Thorndikes puzzle box procedure -> law of effect shaping extinction of operant condition responses partial reinforcement continuous reinforcement fixed ratio Schedule variable ratio schedule fixed interval schedule variable interval schedule reinforcement - negative & positive punishment - negative & positive discriminative stimulus in operant cond. overjustification - effect 22 applied behavior analysis to hyperactive disorders and autistic children Groos’s theory: play as practice of species-typical skills 23 Task 6: The smell of cookies how does memory work (how do they form)? 1. Encoding Encoding is the process of transforming sensory input into a format that can be stored in the brain. It involves attention and the use of specific encoding strategies. - Attention: Focusing on specific stimuli helps in forming memories. Divided attention can reduce encoding effectiveness. - Levels of Processing: Deep processing (e.g., analyzing meaning) leads to better memory than shallow processing (e.g., focusing on appearance or sound). Example: Remembering a word's meaning (deep) versus its font (shallow). - Chunking: Organizing information into meaningful groups, such as breaking a phone number into parts (e.g., 123-456-7890). - Elaborative Rehearsal: Creating connections to existing knowledge, such as forming associations or using mnemonics. 2. Storage Storage refers to maintaining information over time. The brain uses multiple systems to store different types of information: Sensory Memory: A brief and transient storage of sensory information. Iconic Memory: Visual information (~1 second). Echoic Memory: Auditory information (~2-4 seconds). - some trace of sensory input stays in your information-processing system for a brief period less than 1 second for sights and up to several seconds for sounds—even when 24  you are not paying attention to the input. This trace and the ability to hold it are called sensory memory. - contributes to the continuous flow of conscious thought that constitutes the content of short term store Short-Term Memory (STM): - Holds limited information (7±2 items) for about 20-30 seconds. Rehearsal can extend its duration. Sometimes referred to as working memory when used for active manipulation. - info that was in the sensory store moves to the next compartment→short term store. - calls attention to the relatively fleeting nature of info. each item fades quickly and is lost within seconds when it is no longer actively attached to or thought about. - it is conceived in the major workplayde of the mind referred to as working memory - the place where all conscious perceiving, feeling, comparing, computing, and reasoning take place. - info can enter the STT from both the sensory memory store (represents present environment) and the long term memory store (knowledge gained from previous experiences) - momentary capacity is quite small but the amount that flows through can be enormous. - active (a place where info is thought about in the present) - short duration - limited capacity Long-Term Memory (LTM): Potentially unlimited storage that lasts from minutes to a lifetime. Explicit (Declarative) Memory: Includes facts (semantic memory) and personal experiences (episodic memory). Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory: Includes skills (procedural memory) and conditioned responses. - once an item has passed from the two previous stores, it may or may not be encoded into long term memory. - corresponds most closely to people’s everyday notion of memory - stored representation of all that a person knows - the capacity is enormous. - LTM contains the information that enables us to recognise or recall taste, sound, face, names, food, words, spelling. 25  - we are not conscious of the items of info in out LTS unless they have been activated and moved into the short term store - the items lie dormant until they are called into short term store to put to use. - passive (a repository of info) - contributes to the continuous flow of conscious thought that constitutes the content of short term store - long duration - large capacity 3. Retrieval Retrieval involves accessing stored information when needed. Successful retrieval depends on the strength of memory traces and cues. (the process that controls the flow of information from the long- term store into the short-term store.) - Retrieval Cues: Hints or triggers that help access memories (e.g., smells, sounds, or contextual details). - Context-Dependent Memory: Better retrieval occurs in the same environment where the memory was formed. - State-Dependent Memory: Retrieval is influenced by internal states, like mood or physiological conditions. - Forgetting: Failure in retrieval can occur due to interference, decay, or inadequate cues. 26 Biological Basis of Memory Formation Memory formation is closely tied to neural processes: Synaptic Plasticity: Strengthening or weakening of synapses, particularly via mechanisms like long-term potentiation (LTP), underpins memory storage. Hippocampus: Critical for encoding and consolidating explicit memories. Amygdala: Plays a role in emotional memory formation. Prefrontal Cortex: Involved in working memory and decision-making. Consolidation: The process of stabilizing memories after initial encoding, often during sleep. How and why do we forget? Encoding Failure: ○ Information never properly stored due to lack of attention or shallow processing. Decay Theory: ○ Memory traces weaken over time if not used (applies more to short-term memory). Interference: ○ Proactive Interference: Old memories block new ones. ○ Retroactive Interference: New memories disrupt old ones. 27  Retrieval Failure: ○ Memory exists but cannot be accessed due to lack of cues or mismatched context/state. Motivated Forgetting: ○ Repression: Subconscious suppression of traumatic memories. ○ Suppression: Conscious effort to avoid recalling painful memories. Amnesia: ○ Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of old memories. ○ Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories. Memory Distortion: ○ Memories altered by new information, biases, or misinformation. What triggers memories? (how does it differ per senses) External Cues: Sights, sounds, smells, or other sensory experiences associated with the memory. Internal States: Emotions, moods, or physiological states (e.g., being tired or excited). Contextual Similarities: Being in the same location or situation where the memory was formed. Smell and Taste: Strongest for emotional memories and nostalgia due to direct limbic connections. Sight and Sound: Most effective for detailed or context-specific memories. Touch: Often linked with procedural or physical memories (e.g., muscle memory). 28 effortful processes: require the use of mental resources for their successful completion (1) be available to consciousness; (2) interfere with the execution of other effortful processes; (3) improve with practice; and (4) be influenced by individual differences in intelligence, motivation, and education automatic processes: require little or none of the short-term store’s limited capacity. In addition to not requiring any mental effort, truly automatic processes are hypothesized: (1) to occur without intention and without conscious awareness; (2) not to interfere with the execution of other processes; (3) not to improve with practice; (4) not to be influenced by individual differences in intelligence, motivation, and education 29 Task 7: Brief history of yourself 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 Task 8: Help! The Bystander Effect The bystander effect occurs when the presence of others reduces the likelihood that an individual will offer help in an emergency. This phenomenon is often attributed to diffusion of responsibility, where people assume someone else will intervene, and pluralistic ignorance, where individuals rely on the inaction of others to conclude that help is unnecessary. Kin selection theory - altruistic behaviour helps close relatives that are similar to the helper, the gene is surviving not the entity Reciprocity theory - how acts of altruism can rise even among non-kin, altruistic behaviours are just a form of hidden long-term cooperation ->Example: bats sharing food with unrelated members but with the ones they already shared food before Social dilemma - acting for the good of the group vs acting for one's own selfish good at the expense of others Residential mobility - people that lived somewhere for a long time are more likely to engage in activities that help their society Communal (primary concern is the well-fare of the other person) vs exchange relationships (concern about equity) Altruism - Individual helps another while decreasing its own self of survival ->squirrels on the ground make noise when they see a predator to warn the rest 39 Helping - behaviour that increases the survival chance or reproductive capacity of another individual The tragedy ->the pollution I add to the atmosphere does not do anything basically but the pollution of millions cars does, so everybody is still drivingand the pollution is getting worse and worse 40 Task 9: I’m different Personality refers to a person’s general style of interacting with the world, especially with other people. Personality: divided by TRAIT ( predisposition to behave in a certain way )= enduring, and STATES ( inner entities ) = permanent Fiske’s five factor model ( Big Five Theory ) : 1) neuroticism 2) extraversion 4) openess to to experience 4) agreeableness 5) conscientiousness These do not explain personality but they only describe its elements. In opposition these are designed to describe the particular behaviors : Psychodynamic theories, Humanistic theories, Social-cognitive theories Traits of personality over time: In adults ( 50 yrs) it is pretty stable Some changes are caused by increased maturity Some changes are caused by major life changes Heritability vs Environment that change personality Heritability in personality :individual differences derive in differences in genes rather than in environmental experiences ( traits for example are more heritable ) Some individuals are more susceptible to environmental influences than others 50 % of the variability among individuals its from genetic differences and 50 % is from environmental differences Both evolutionary and cultural forces may help to account for gender differences in personality. 41