Motivation and Emotion: Chapter Overview

• Motivation encompasses the factors that direct and energize human and organismal behavior, also known as motives, and includes biological, cognitive, and social aspects.
• Psychologists use various approaches to explain the motivations that guide people's behavior due to the complexity of motivation.

Major Approaches to Motivation

• Instinct approaches state people and animals are born preprogrammed with sets of behaviors crucial for survival.
• Drive-reduction approaches explain behavior is motivated by the need to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs, leading to a drive to restore equilibrium.
• Arousal approaches suggest individuals seek an optimal level of stimulation, acting to increase it when too low and decrease it when too high.
• Incentive approaches posit external rewards direct and energize behavior.
• Cognitive approaches argue that thoughts, beliefs, expectations, and goals direct motivation.
• Hierarchy of needs suggests needs form a hierarchy that must be fulfilled in order of lower-level before higher-level needs can be addressed.

Instinct Approaches

• Instincts are inborn patterns of behavior that are biologically determined rather than learned.
• Humans come preprogrammed with behavior sets essential for survival (e.g., seeking food, sexual partners, infant suckling).
• Instincts provide energy that channels behavior in appropriate directions.

Drive-Reduction Approaches

• Behavior is driven by the requirement to decrease internal stress caused by unmet biological requirements, which disrupts equilibrium.
• Unmet needs "drive" individuals to behave in ways that reduce stress and restore equilibrium.
• Homeostasis, akin to a home thermostat, restores body function to an optimal state through feedback loops to maintain a steady internal state underlying primary drives.
• Receptor cells constantly monitor temperature and nutrient levels, prompting the body to return to an optimal state when deviations occur.
• Primary drives are related to the biological needs or the species as a whole, while secondary drives are influenced by prior experience and learning.
• Drive reduction is challenged because it does not fully explain behavior aimed at maintaining or increasing excitement and arousal, such as thrill-seeking behaviors.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• A person must relatively satisfy the basic needs at the lower levels before moving on to higher-order needs
• Higher goals can be difficult to falsify, as people deprived of basic conditions may still pursue difficult objectives.
• People strive for a positive view of the self to realize their full potential.
• Without a supportive atmosphere, self-actualization cannot take place.
• Self-actualized people distinguish between values those imposed by society.

Arousal Approaches

• Maintain certain degrees of stimulation and activity, increasing/decreasing them as needed
• Stimulation and activity levels that are too high are reduced
• Stimulation and activity levels that are too low are increased.
• People vary in seeking optimal stimulation, some high arousal.

Incentive Approaches

• Suggest motivation comes for desiring valuable external goals or incentives, such as grades, money, and affection
• There is a question of not everything is about monetary reward; there is enjoyment of the process and love/charity involved in motivation.

Cognitive Approaches

• Suggest motivation stems from complex people's thoughts, expectations, and goals.
• Intrinsic motivation is doing something by own enjoyment.
• Extrinsic is doing to acquire a tangible, external reward.
• Providing rewards for desirable behavior lowers intrinsic/increases motivation, although conclusion is controversial.

Hunger

• Defined as the need for food; these factors influence why (and what) individuals eat.
• Obesity is defined as body weight that is more than 20% above the average weight for a person of a given height.
• A widely used metric of obesity is body mass index (BMI), is based on height/weight.
• People with a BMI greater than 30 are obese, while those with a BMI between 25 and 30 are overweight.
• 63% of Canadians over the age of 18 are overweight and Almost ¼ would meet the BMI cutoff for obesity.
• In terms of biology food mechanisms regulate desire, while balanced diets come given a variety of foods.
• Signals are sent by organisms dictating if they eat food, like glucose levels monitored by the hypothalamus, which controls hunger feelings.
• The hypothalamus affects one hypothesis is weight set point, where weight of the body maintains, which regulates food intake.
• The hypothalamus acts as internal weight thermostat
• Metabolism expends food by energy rate
• Peoples metabolism differentiates ability to eat/exercise.
• Social factors influence eating like portion control, comfort eating and mindless eating.
• Food is designed in labs to be convenient, low cost and more appetizing, leading to overeating.

The Need for Affiliation

• Esther Perel says our quality of life hinges on our relationships

The Need To Belong

• Need to associate and maintain social bonds with other individuals= fundamental human need
• Evolutionary components with bonds are strong, where forming resistance is easy, their dissolution and environment/ interactions are monitored for inclusion/belonging.
• Ostracism/fear of rejection is being actively ignored/ excluded by a loved one leads to pain and attempts to reconnect.
• The Sci-Am article details how social number of people who are socially isolated, an increasing problem with loss of connection, as chronic loneliness impacts a lot.
• Loneliness reduces lifespan by deadly; it increases cardiovascular disease, decreased resistance to infection, and blood pressure.

Need for Achievement

• Satisfaction comes when striving and attain, where there are situations in which they prove successful.

• Situations avoided because success will some easily/unlikely.

• Those who need low tend to want motivated by desires to avoid tasks.

• People who need the task will seek tasks to avoid failure.

Defining Emotions

• Innumerable theories explain emotion, yet we do not know why we have them or which we have.
• Emotions intertwine with neuroscience, motivation, but biology cognition; no single theory describes all aspects.
• Contradictory research inhibits accuracy of predictions.
• Emotions act as link between responses and environment.
• They act as reinforcement/ punishment to shape our future behaviour.
• Allow us to better understand how we interact effectively with our surroundings, signalling other.

Ways to Determine The Range of Emotions

• Hierarchize emotions: positives (love, fondness, bliss, infatuation), negatives (anger, fear, sadness, worry, loneliness, horror, agony)
• Researchers suggest that emotions are based of different elements in a minimum amount of time
• Other lists include emotions
• One issue: the culture.

The Behavioural Components of Emotion

• Can be expressed via nonverbal behaviour (facial expressions/body language)
• Ekman's research discovered emotions are very similar with respect to facial behaviours
• Six emotions: Happiness, anger, sadness, fear, surprise, disgust.
• Argument- the process is quick and almost automatic
• There are significant cultural emotion similarities with expression, also differences that regulate behaviour, and experience.
• Display rules: appropriate expression of emotions depends, like engaging versus disengaging.
• Nonverbal leakage is emotional states that are spilled unconsciously in behaviour
• Powerful cue: hiding and suppressing emotion
• Body lies: tension in posture/ jaw muscles, plus eye behaviour

The Roots of Emotion

• Defined general physiological reactions accompany emotions/ have challenging
• First theory: specific bodily reactions trigger feeling.
• Second theory: bodily reactions follow experiencing feeling

Three Models of Emotion

• James-Lange theory, states that the experience in turn is based on bodily events that interpret, and frequently experiences before they occur.
• Cannon-Bard theory states when signals are sent in cortex/ANS occurs
• Schachner/Singers: Experience ambiguous arousal, looking outside is the cognitive

Attribution (of Arousal)

• Is when people feel and ambiguous physical interpretations.
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• Attraction was misinterpreted Contemporary View
• Activation depends on which emotion occurs.
• Happiness means that more are less sensitive.
• These findings do have there own limitations Feldmen Barrett is how it develops
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• Are not necessarily what they are.
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