Science, Technology, and Society

Evaluation and Development

• Evaluation is used for making predictions, simplifying work, and fulfilling human needs.

Early Civilization

• Nomads were people who moved continuously, seeking food and lacking permanent homes.
• Basic needs for early humans included food, shelter, and clothing.
• Nomadic groups relied on areas rich in resources and formed small tribes of hunter-gatherers.
• Stone tools were essential for survival, aiding in hunting, food preparation, shelter construction, and territory protection.

Ancient Mesopotamia

• Mesopotamia, named for its position between rivers, is recognized as the cradle of human civilization.
• The Sumerians and Babylonians were key civilizations in this region.

Sumerian Civilization

• The Sumerians were the first settlers in Mesopotamia, establishing a civilization through advancements in architecture, language, agriculture, and governance.
• Cities were founded along rivers in South Mesopotamia around 4500 BCE, including notable cities like Eridu, Uruk, and Ur.

City of Uruk

• Uruk is often considered the world's first true city, constructed without locally available building stones, using mud/clay and reeds for bricks.

Ziggurats

• Ziggurats were large structures associated with cities, containing temples for high priests and dedicated to patron deities.
• The Great Ziggurat of Ur, built as a temple for Nanna, the moon god, was approximately 170 feet tall and took 12 years to construct.

Agriculture

• Sumerian agriculture included the cultivation of crops such as wheat, barley, grapes, and onions, as well as raising livestock like sheep and goats.
• The irrigation system featured levees, canals, and ditches to control water supply and flooding for crop irrigation.

Cuneiform

• Cuneiform was the first writing system, utilizing symbols carved on clay tablets with a reed stylus.
• It served various functions, including trade, record-keeping, and storytelling.

Sumerian Innovations

• The Sumerian number system was based on sixty (sexagesimal system).
• Sailboats made from reeds facilitated trade along rivers.
• The wheel, first developed for farming around 2000 BC, later became essential for transportation.
• Plows increased agricultural efficiency by allowing faster soil preparation for planting.

Greek Philosophers

• Key figures include Thales (water as a fundamental substance), Pythagoras (Pythagorean theorem), Empedocles (four fundamental elements), Democritus (atomism), and Archimedes (buoyancy laws).

Roman Civilization

• Roman cities featured forums, temples, markets, and various public structures, integrating civic life with architecture.

Roman Architecture

• Iconic structures include cathedrals, basilicas, coliseums, and aqueducts, showcasing engineering mastery.
• The Pantheon was a temple for all Roman gods, while the Colosseum was the largest amphitheater with a seating capacity of 50,000.

Roman Aqueducts

• Aqueducts transported water for public and private use, essential for fountains, baths, and agriculture.
• The Aqua Appia, the first aqueduct, was constructed in 312 BC, and Rome had eleven aqueducts by the third century.

Roman Numerals

• Developed to meet the needs of trade, symbols included I, V, X, L, C, D, and M, facilitating communication.

Other Discoveries

• Innovations included bound books for record-keeping, initiated by Julius Caesar, and the early concept of newspapers for political communication.

Chinese Civilization

• Recognized as the oldest civilization in Asia, it contributed significantly to cultural and technological advancements.

Silk and Tea Production

• Silk was produced by silkworms; tea was processed and consumed in various forms, including dried teacakes.

Great Wall of China

• Constructed to protect against invaders, extending over 21,196 km with an average height of 6-7 meters and built over 200 years.

Gunpowder and Compass

• Initially developed for alchemical pursuits, gunpowder became used in fireworks and military applications; the compass, created from lodestone, was essential for navigation.