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Questions and Answers
What is one of the primary functions of saliva?
What is one of the primary functions of saliva?
Which component makes up the majority of saliva's composition?
Which component makes up the majority of saliva's composition?
What happens during the buccal phase of swallowing?
What happens during the buccal phase of swallowing?
What type of muscle movement is responsible for moving food through the esophagus?
What type of muscle movement is responsible for moving food through the esophagus?
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Which of the following is NOT a function of gastric gland cells?
Which of the following is NOT a function of gastric gland cells?
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How does the mucosal barrier protect the stomach?
How does the mucosal barrier protect the stomach?
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What initiates the breakdown of starch in the mouth?
What initiates the breakdown of starch in the mouth?
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Which phase of swallowing is controlled by the swallowing center in the brainstem?
Which phase of swallowing is controlled by the swallowing center in the brainstem?
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Which of the following statements about carbohydrates is incorrect?
Which of the following statements about carbohydrates is incorrect?
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In which location does glycolysis occur?
In which location does glycolysis occur?
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What is the primary product of the Krebs cycle?
What is the primary product of the Krebs cycle?
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Which of the following best describes gluconeogenesis?
Which of the following best describes gluconeogenesis?
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What is the main function of lipids in the body?
What is the main function of lipids in the body?
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Which of the following dietary sources contains complete proteins?
Which of the following dietary sources contains complete proteins?
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During glycolysis, how many ATP molecules are produced?
During glycolysis, how many ATP molecules are produced?
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Which statement about fatty acids is true?
Which statement about fatty acids is true?
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What is primarily reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)?
What is primarily reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)?
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What is one of the primary functions of the liver in digestion?
What is one of the primary functions of the liver in digestion?
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In which part of the nephron does osmosis allow water to leave the filtrate?
In which part of the nephron does osmosis allow water to leave the filtrate?
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Which component of pancreatic juice is primarily responsible for neutralizing chyme in the duodenum?
Which component of pancreatic juice is primarily responsible for neutralizing chyme in the duodenum?
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What triggers the secretion of enzyme-rich pancreatic juice?
What triggers the secretion of enzyme-rich pancreatic juice?
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What hormone is released in response to dehydration to promote water reabsorption in the collecting ducts?
What hormone is released in response to dehydration to promote water reabsorption in the collecting ducts?
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Which process is primarily involved in the elimination of excess potassium from the body?
Which process is primarily involved in the elimination of excess potassium from the body?
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What is the role of bacterial flora in the large intestine?
What is the role of bacterial flora in the large intestine?
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How does the liver respond to secretin released into the bloodstream?
How does the liver respond to secretin released into the bloodstream?
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How do the kidneys maintain osmotic concentration around 300 mOsm?
How do the kidneys maintain osmotic concentration around 300 mOsm?
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Which of the following statements about the secretion of pancreatic juice is true?
Which of the following statements about the secretion of pancreatic juice is true?
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What is the role of the countercurrent multiplier in urine formation?
What is the role of the countercurrent multiplier in urine formation?
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What happens to urine concentration when the body is overhydrated?
What happens to urine concentration when the body is overhydrated?
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Which of the following processes does NOT occur during the defecation reflex?
Which of the following processes does NOT occur during the defecation reflex?
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Which enzyme in pancreatic juice is responsible for breaking down fats?
Which enzyme in pancreatic juice is responsible for breaking down fats?
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What is primarily eliminated through tubular secretion?
What is primarily eliminated through tubular secretion?
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What is the primary function of the macula densa cells in the juxtaglomerular complex?
What is the primary function of the macula densa cells in the juxtaglomerular complex?
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Which process involved in urine formation selectively moves substances from blood to filtrate?
Which process involved in urine formation selectively moves substances from blood to filtrate?
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How do the vasa recta contribute to urine formation?
How do the vasa recta contribute to urine formation?
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What does glomerular filtration produce?
What does glomerular filtration produce?
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Which component is responsible for the secretion of renin in the juxtaglomerular complex?
Which component is responsible for the secretion of renin in the juxtaglomerular complex?
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In which part of the nephron does tubular reabsorption primarily occur?
In which part of the nephron does tubular reabsorption primarily occur?
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What is a characteristic of the fenestrated endothelium in the filtration membrane?
What is a characteristic of the fenestrated endothelium in the filtration membrane?
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What role do peritubular capillaries serve in the renal system?
What role do peritubular capillaries serve in the renal system?
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What role does the vasa recta play in the countercurrent exchanger?
What role does the vasa recta play in the countercurrent exchanger?
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Which condition leads to the formation of a large volume of dilute urine?
Which condition leads to the formation of a large volume of dilute urine?
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What happens when a substance has a renal clearance (C) less than 125 ml/min?
What happens when a substance has a renal clearance (C) less than 125 ml/min?
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What is the primary effect of osmotic diuretics on urine formation?
What is the primary effect of osmotic diuretics on urine formation?
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When maximal ADH is present, what is the expected outcome on urine volume?
When maximal ADH is present, what is the expected outcome on urine volume?
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What chemical is an example of an ADH inhibitor that can enhance urinary output?
What chemical is an example of an ADH inhibitor that can enhance urinary output?
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If a substance has a renal clearance of 0 ml/min, what does that indicate?
If a substance has a renal clearance of 0 ml/min, what does that indicate?
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How does the countercurrent exchanger contribute to urine concentration?
How does the countercurrent exchanger contribute to urine concentration?
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Study Notes
Digestive System
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Digestive Processes: Ingestion, Propulsion (swallowing, peristalsis), Mechanical Breakdown (chewing, mixing), Digestion (breaking down complex molecules), Absorption (transporting digested food), and Defecation (removal of waste).
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Carbohydrate Digestion: Salivary amylase in saliva breaks down starch, pancreatic amylase breaks down starch/glycogen to oligosaccharides/disaccharides. Brush border enzymes further break down to monosaccharides, which are absorbed via secondary active transport and facilitated diffusion.
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Protein Digestion: Pepsinogen (activated to pepsin in stomach) breaks down proteins into polypeptide chains, pancreatic proteases further break them into smaller chains, brush border enzymes (peptidases) break into amino acids. Amino acids are absorbed via secondary active transport then facilitated diffusion.
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Lipid Digestion: Triglycerides are the major fat in the diet. The small intestines are primary for lipid digestion. Emulsification (bile salts break large fat globules to small droplets) increases surface area to allow pancreatic lipase to act upon lipids. Pancreatic lipase hydrolyzes triglycerides to monoglycerides and free fatty acids. Micelle formation: These compounds are formed and absorbed as these are associated with bile salts. Diffusion into epithelial cells and chylomicron formation (packaged with proteins and fats), transport extruded from the epithelial cells by exocytosis and enter lacteals and lymph to venous blood in the thoracic duct.
Peritoneum and Digestive Activity
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Peritoneum: Serous membrane lining the abdominal cavity. Visceral (covers organs), Parietal (lines body wall). Peritoneal cavity (space between layers) lubricates organs. Mesenteries routes for vessels, lymphatics and nerves; support organs in position, contains fat deposits.
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Intrinsic Nervous System (Short Reflexes): Submucosal and myenteric nerve plexuses within the gut wall. Linked to CNS with afferent visceral fibers and autonomic nerves.
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Extrinsic Nervous System (Long Reflexes): Involve CNS centers and autonomic nerves; response to stimuli in or outside the GI tract.
Saliva, Chewing and Swallowing
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Saliva Functions: Cleanses mouth, dissolves chemicals for taste, moistens/compacts food, and begins starch breakdown.
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Saliva Composition: 97-99.5% Water + electrolytes + digestive enzymes (salivary amylase).
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Chewing (Mastication): Teeth cut, grind, and mix food with saliva.
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Swallowing (Deglutition): Buccal phase (voluntary), Pharyngeal-esophageal (involuntary), with sphincters, and peristalsis.
Other Digestive Processes and Functions
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Gastric Glands and Regulation: Parietal cells secrete HCl (denatures protein, activates pepsin, kills many bacteria) and intrinsic factor (vitamin B12). Chief cells secrete pepsinogen (becomes pepsin). Enteroendocrine cells secrete gastrin (regulates stomach secretions and motility). Phases of gastric secretion: cephalic, gastric, and intestinal.
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Small Intestine Modifications: Circular folds, villi, and microvilli increase absorption surface area.
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Liver and Pancreatic Juice Functions in Digestion: Liver produces bile (emulsification), and Pancreas produces pancreatic juice (enzymes, bicarbonate). Enzymes break down proteins, carbs, and fats. Active regulation of pancreatic juice & bile secretion are regulated by CCK & secretin in duodenum
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Large Intestine Functions: Microbial flora fermentation of otherwise indigestible foods to produce vitamins and energy. Absorption of water, manufacturing vitamins, formation/propulsion of feces to anus, defecation in relation to the defecation reflex.
Metabolism
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Carbohydrate Metabolism: Glycolysis (breakdown of glucose), Glycogenesis (glucose to glycogen), Glycogenolysis (glycogen to glucose), Gluconeogenesis (non-carbohydrate sources). Glucose, the primary fuel, stored as glycogen.
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Lipid Metabolism: Lipolysis (breakdown of fats), lipogenesis (formation of fats). Triglycerides (fats) are stored in adipose tissue and used as energy if carbs are not available.
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Protein Metabolism: Used for energy or to synthesize new proteins. Excess amino acids are converted into other molecules used as energy or as structural materials.
Urinary System
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Kidney Functions: Regulates total water/solute concentration, acid-base balance, removes metabolic waste, produces hormones (renin, erythropoietin), regulates RBC production, converts vitamin D to active form
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Nephron Structure: Renal corpuscle (glomerulus & Bowman's capsule - filtration) and renal tubule (PCT, nephron loop, DCT, collecting duct-reabsorption/secretion)
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Glomerular Filtration: Blood pressure forces fluid and small solutes through filtration membrane. Hydrostatic pressure vs opposing forces determining the net filtration pressure.
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Tubular Reabsorption/Secretion: selective processes that regulate the composition of urine as filtrate flows through the nephrons.
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Urine Formation (dilute/concentrated): Medullary osmotic gradient, countercurrent multiplier, and countercurrent exchanger mechanisms; control by ADH and Aldosterone
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Urine Characteristics: Color (urochrome), transparency, composition (nitrogenous waste, electrolytes)
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Description
Explore the fundamental processes involved in the digestive system, including ingestion, propulsion, mechanical breakdown, digestion, absorption, and defecation. Delve into carbohydrate, protein, and lipid digestion, focusing on the key enzymes and absorption mechanisms. This quiz will test your knowledge on how our bodies process food.
