Digestive System Overview

The liver is not part of the alimentary canal; it is a digestive organ, but it's accessory, not part of the tube itself.

The submucosa layer of the alimentary canal contains blood vessels and nerves, crucial for transporting absorbed nutrients and regulating functions.

Amylase is the primary enzyme in saliva that breaks down carbohydrates for digestion.

The parotid gland produces the most saliva.

The pancreas secretes both insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar.

The liver is the primary organ responsible for producing bile.

The sphincter of Oddi regulates the flow of bile into the small intestine.

Pepsin is the primary enzyme that breaks down proteins in the stomach.

The small intestine's main role is absorption of nutrients.

The small intestine is the main site for fat digestion.

ATP is the primary energy molecule used by cells.

Glycolysis is a process that breaks down glucose to release energy.

The Krebs cycle or citric acid cycle happens inside the mitochondria.

Beta-oxidation is the process of breaking down fatty acids.

Glucagon promotes the breakdown of glycogen to glucose.

Ammonia is a key byproduct of protein metabolism.

Oxidative phosphorylation, a process that takes place in mitochondria, generates the largest amount of ATP.

A series of protein complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane that uses energy from electrons to pump protons, creating a gradient used to produce ATP.

A series of chemical reactions that break down acetyl-CoA to release energy in the form of ATP and electron carriers.

The metabolic process that breaks down fatty acids into acetyl-CoA molecules.

Vitamin B12 is crucial for energy production.

The liver is involved in gluconeogenesis (making glucose) and urea production (removing nitrogen waste), as well as fat storage.

Mitochondria is the primary site for metabolic reactions, including cellular respiration, generating ATP.

The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney, responsible for filtering blood and producing urine.

Filtration occurs in the glomerulus part of the nephron.

The ureter carries urine from the kidney to the bladder.

The renal pyramids are a part of the renal medulla.

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) increases water reabsorption in the kidney.

The detrusor muscle is found in the bladder wall.

The external urethral sphincter is under voluntary control, regulating urine release.

The bladder typically holds about 500 mL of urine before needing to be emptied.

The male urethra is the longest part of the urinary system in males.

Renal clearance measures how efficiently the kidney removes substances from the blood.

The juxtaglomerular apparatus plays a role in regulating blood pressure and sodium balance .

The female urethra is approximately 4-6 cm long.