Podcast
Questions and Answers
What does developmental science study?
What does developmental science study?
The study of human development across the lifespan.
What are the 5 steps of the scientific method?
What are the 5 steps of the scientific method?
Observation, hypothesis, experimentation, analysis, and conclusion.
What is the nature/nurture controversy?
What is the nature/nurture controversy?
A debate on whether human behavior is determined more by genetic inheritance or environmental factors.
What is the difference between genetics and epigenetics?
What is the difference between genetics and epigenetics?
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What is a critical period in development?
What is a critical period in development?
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What is a sensitive period in development?
What is a sensitive period in development?
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What is a cohort?
What is a cohort?
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What is human development plasticity?
What is human development plasticity?
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What are the advantages of observational methods in developmental science?
What are the advantages of observational methods in developmental science?
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What is an IRB?
What is an IRB?
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What are the three functions of theories in developmental psychology?
What are the three functions of theories in developmental psychology?
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Describe the contributions of Freud and Erikson to developmental theories.
Describe the contributions of Freud and Erikson to developmental theories.
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What is an allele?
What is an allele?
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What makes a cell a stem cell?
What makes a cell a stem cell?
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What is a teratogen?
What is a teratogen?
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What is the APGAR score?
What is the APGAR score?
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What is the significance of synchronous interactions in early development?
What is the significance of synchronous interactions in early development?
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What is the goal of assessing children using the Ainsworth Strange Situation?
What is the goal of assessing children using the Ainsworth Strange Situation?
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Which theory emphasizes the role of environmental factors in shaping behavior and learning?
Which theory emphasizes the role of environmental factors in shaping behavior and learning?
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What distinguishes a sensitive period from a critical period in development?
What distinguishes a sensitive period from a critical period in development?
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Which of the following research methods is best suited for examining developmental changes over an extended period?
Which of the following research methods is best suited for examining developmental changes over an extended period?
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What concept suggests that the same genetic traits can express differently in different environments?
What concept suggests that the same genetic traits can express differently in different environments?
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In developmental science, which approach is typically associated with integrating multiple theories to better understand human behavior?
In developmental science, which approach is typically associated with integrating multiple theories to better understand human behavior?
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What makes a zygote genetically unique from others?
What makes a zygote genetically unique from others?
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Which of the following describes the ethical concerns primarily associated with developmental studies?
Which of the following describes the ethical concerns primarily associated with developmental studies?
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Which inheritance pattern signifies that the presence of just one dominant allele is sufficient to express a trait?
Which inheritance pattern signifies that the presence of just one dominant allele is sufficient to express a trait?
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Which of the following is a primary function of developmental theories?
Which of the following is a primary function of developmental theories?
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Which term best describes the potential for change in human development in response to different experiences?
Which term best describes the potential for change in human development in response to different experiences?
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Which condition is characterized by an extra chromosome 21?
Which condition is characterized by an extra chromosome 21?
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Which of the following best describes the difference between experience-expectant and experience-dependent growth?
Which of the following best describes the difference between experience-expectant and experience-dependent growth?
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What is the primary function of a genetic counselor?
What is the primary function of a genetic counselor?
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Which of the following is NOT considered a risk factor for low birth weight?
Which of the following is NOT considered a risk factor for low birth weight?
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Which emotional response typically appears first in infants?
Which emotional response typically appears first in infants?
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What does the Brazelton scale primarily measure?
What does the Brazelton scale primarily measure?
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What is a behavioral teratogen?
What is a behavioral teratogen?
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Which factor is associated with high rates of sickle-cell disease in certain African regions?
Which factor is associated with high rates of sickle-cell disease in certain African regions?
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What is the main behavioral change when a child is experiencing proximity-seeking behavior?
What is the main behavioral change when a child is experiencing proximity-seeking behavior?
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What is the effect of stress or social deprivation on early development?
What is the effect of stress or social deprivation on early development?
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What is the primary reason that social referencing is crucial in toddlerhood?
What is the primary reason that social referencing is crucial in toddlerhood?
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Identify the factor that is NOT associated with the increased risk of obesity in today's children compared to children 50 years ago.
Identify the factor that is NOT associated with the increased risk of obesity in today's children compared to children 50 years ago.
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Which attachment style is most likely to develop from inconsistent parenting?
Which attachment style is most likely to develop from inconsistent parenting?
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Why did few people recognize childhood maltreatment 50 years ago?
Why did few people recognize childhood maltreatment 50 years ago?
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What long-term effect is commonly observed in children who experience maltreatment?
What long-term effect is commonly observed in children who experience maltreatment?
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What is a significant critique of Piaget’s theory regarding infancy and early childhood?
What is a significant critique of Piaget’s theory regarding infancy and early childhood?
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Which of the following describes the advantage of bilingual education for children?
Which of the following describes the advantage of bilingual education for children?
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How does myelination contribute to child development?
How does myelination contribute to child development?
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What is a key component of Erikson's theory related to infancy?
What is a key component of Erikson's theory related to infancy?
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Which of the following is an inference that can be drawn from data on childhood injury rates?
Which of the following is an inference that can be drawn from data on childhood injury rates?
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How does emotional development in early childhood primarily manifest?
How does emotional development in early childhood primarily manifest?
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What is the primary characteristic of 'effortful control' in early childhood?
What is the primary characteristic of 'effortful control' in early childhood?
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Which parenting style is most likely to produce happy and successful children according to Baumrind's theory?
Which parenting style is most likely to produce happy and successful children according to Baumrind's theory?
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What is a recognized limitation of Baumrind's description of parenting styles?
What is a recognized limitation of Baumrind's description of parenting styles?
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How might culture influence parenting styles?
How might culture influence parenting styles?
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What are the potential effects of corporal punishment on child discipline?
What are the potential effects of corporal punishment on child discipline?
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What advantage does the use of induction as punishment have over other forms?
What advantage does the use of induction as punishment have over other forms?
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What do children primarily learn from excessive screen time?
What do children primarily learn from excessive screen time?
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In what way do empathy and prosocial behavior relate to each other in childhood development?
In what way do empathy and prosocial behavior relate to each other in childhood development?
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Why is social comparison considered powerful during middle childhood?
Why is social comparison considered powerful during middle childhood?
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Which of the following best describes the purpose of genetic counseling?
Which of the following best describes the purpose of genetic counseling?
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What differentiates experience-expectant growth from experience-dependent growth?
What differentiates experience-expectant growth from experience-dependent growth?
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During which prenatal stage does the embryo develop the most complex structures?
During which prenatal stage does the embryo develop the most complex structures?
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What is a primary consequence of maternal depression on newborns?
What is a primary consequence of maternal depression on newborns?
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What primarily characterizes low birth weight in infants?
What primarily characterizes low birth weight in infants?
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In the context of nurturing, what effect does synchrony have on child development?
In the context of nurturing, what effect does synchrony have on child development?
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What distinguishes behavioral teratogens from other types of teratogens?
What distinguishes behavioral teratogens from other types of teratogens?
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Which of the following correctly differentiates between cognitive theories and behaviorism?
Which of the following correctly differentiates between cognitive theories and behaviorism?
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What distinguishes longitudinal research from cross-sectional research in developmental science?
What distinguishes longitudinal research from cross-sectional research in developmental science?
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Which of the following emotions typically appears first in infants?
Which of the following emotions typically appears first in infants?
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Which theory primarily emphasizes cultural influences on individual development?
Which theory primarily emphasizes cultural influences on individual development?
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What is the significance of the APGAR score for newborns?
What is the significance of the APGAR score for newborns?
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In developmental research, what is the purpose of using cross-sequential design?
In developmental research, what is the purpose of using cross-sequential design?
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Why is breast-feeding recommended until at least 1 year of age?
Why is breast-feeding recommended until at least 1 year of age?
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Which of the following best describes the concept of differential susceptibility?
Which of the following best describes the concept of differential susceptibility?
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What is the primary ethical concern related to research involving children in developmental studies?
What is the primary ethical concern related to research involving children in developmental studies?
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Which inheritance pattern involves both alleles contributing to the phenotype?
Which inheritance pattern involves both alleles contributing to the phenotype?
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How does neuroscience enhance our understanding of developmental theories compared to earlier theorists like Freud and Skinner?
How does neuroscience enhance our understanding of developmental theories compared to earlier theorists like Freud and Skinner?
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Which statement accurately describes stem cells?
Which statement accurately describes stem cells?
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What brain growth milestone is typically observed between ages 2 and 6?
What brain growth milestone is typically observed between ages 2 and 6?
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Which factor is considered a primary reason adults often overfeed children?
Which factor is considered a primary reason adults often overfeed children?
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What is one reason why childhood neglect is viewed as more harmful than abuse?
What is one reason why childhood neglect is viewed as more harmful than abuse?
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Which of the following best describes a significant change in language skills from infancy to early childhood?
Which of the following best describes a significant change in language skills from infancy to early childhood?
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Which of these is a factor that aids the development of motor skills in children?
Which of these is a factor that aids the development of motor skills in children?
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How does social referencing manifest in toddlerhood?
How does social referencing manifest in toddlerhood?
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What is one theoretical consensus on parental care found in attachment theories?
What is one theoretical consensus on parental care found in attachment theories?
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What is a key characteristic of egocentrism as observed in children?
What is a key characteristic of egocentrism as observed in children?
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Which factor has contributed to a heightened risk of obesity in today's children compared to 50 years ago?
Which factor has contributed to a heightened risk of obesity in today's children compared to 50 years ago?
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What does Piaget's first stage of cognition, sensorimotor intelligence, emphasize?
What does Piaget's first stage of cognition, sensorimotor intelligence, emphasize?
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Which aspect is most essential for fostering emotional development in early childhood?
Which aspect is most essential for fostering emotional development in early childhood?
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What defines effortful control in early childhood?
What defines effortful control in early childhood?
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What characteristic of parenting style leads to the happiest and most successful children according to Baumrind?
What characteristic of parenting style leads to the happiest and most successful children according to Baumrind?
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Which factor significantly limits Baumrind’s description of parenting styles?
Which factor significantly limits Baumrind’s description of parenting styles?
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What is a significant concern regarding the use of corporal punishment for child discipline?
What is a significant concern regarding the use of corporal punishment for child discipline?
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Which explanation accounts for the increase observed in IQ scores in modern populations known as the Flynn effect?
Which explanation accounts for the increase observed in IQ scores in modern populations known as the Flynn effect?
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How do experts recommend addressing excessive screen time in children?
How do experts recommend addressing excessive screen time in children?
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What is one problematic aspect of using induction as a form of punishment?
What is one problematic aspect of using induction as a form of punishment?
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What primary skill do children develop through interactions that involve empathy during play?
What primary skill do children develop through interactions that involve empathy during play?
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What does the concept of social comparison in middle childhood primarily involve?
What does the concept of social comparison in middle childhood primarily involve?
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Study Notes
Developmental Science
- Studies human development across lifespan
- Uses scientific method:
- Observe: Gather data on behavior
- Hypothesize: Propose explanation for observation
- Test: Design & conduct research
- Analyze: Interpret data and results
- Conclude: Draw conclusions and refine hypothesis
Nature vs Nurture
- Long-standing debate about relative influence of genetics and environment
- Modern view acknowledges interaction between both:
- Genes: Provide potential
- Environment: Shapes how potential is expressed
Genetics & Epigenetics
- Genetics: Study of how genes are passed down
- Epigenetics: Study of how environment influences gene expression
- Differential Susceptibility: Individuals vary in sensitivity to environments
Continuity & Discontinuity
- Continuity: Development progresses smoothly, gradual change
- Discontinuity: Development has distinct stages, sudden shifts in abilities
Critical & Sensitive Periods
- Critical period: Specific time where certain experiences are crucial for development
- Sensitive period: Time when specific experiences are optimal but not necessary for development
Social Contexts of Life
- Development is shaped by various contexts:
- Family
- Culture
- Socioeconomic status
- Historical events
Cohorts & Age Groups
- Cohort: Group of people born within a specific time period
- Age group: People within a specified range of ages
Plasticity in Human Development
- Development can be molded and changed throughout lifespan
- Ability to learn and adapt is ongoing
Scientific Methods
- Observation: Systematic watching and recording behavior
-
Experimental: Manipulating variables to determine cause and effect
- Control group: Does not receive treatment
- Experimental group: Receives treatment
- Survey method: Collects data through questionnaires
- Cross-sectional research: Studies different age groups at one time
- Longitudinal research: Studies same individuals over time
- Cross-sequential research: Combines cross-sectional and longitudinal methods
- Correlational research: Examines relationships between variables
- Quantitative research: Uses numerical data and statistical analysis
- Qualitative research: Uses non-numerical data, explores experiences and perspectives
IRB and Ethical Issues in Developmental Research
- IRB (Institutional Review Board): Reviews research proposals to ensure ethical standards
-
Ethical concerns in developmental science:
- Informed consent
- Protection from harm
- Confidentiality
- Right to withdraw
Theories of Human Development
-
Functions of theories:
- Describe: Describe development patterns
- Explain: Offer explanations for observed patterns
- Predict: Predict future development
Grand Theories (Older Theories)
-
Psychoanalytic Theories: Emphasize unconscious motivations and early childhood experiences
- Freud: Psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital)
- Erikson: Psychosocial stages (trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame & doubt, etc.)
-
Behaviorism: Focuses on observable behavior and learning through association and reinforcement
- Skinner: Operant conditioning (rewards and punishments)
-
Social Learning Theories: Emphasize learning through observation and imitation
- Bandura: Observational learning
-
Cognitive Theories: Emphasize mental processes, how people think and reason
- Piaget: Stages of cognitive development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational)
- Vygotsky: Social interaction and cultural context influence development
- Information Processing: Focuses on how information is processed and stored
Criticisms of Grand Theories
- Psychoanalytic: Too focused on the past, difficult to test
- Behaviorism: Too simplistic, ignores cognitive processes
- Social Learning: Limited explanation for complex behaviors
- Cognitive: Stage-like development may not be universal
- Information Processing: Too abstract, may not fully capture human experiences
Eclectic Approach
- Most developmentalists synthesize multiple theories to provide comprehensive understanding
Benefits of Multiple Theories
- Offers richer understanding of complex human development
- Provides diverse perspectives and framework for analyzing behavior
Neuroscience Advancements
- Provides insights into brain development and function
- Offers new perspectives on how experiences influence brain structure and behavior, complementing psychological theories
Goals of Newer Theories
- Multicultural: Acknowledge and address diverse cultural influences
- Multidisciplinary: Integrate knowledge from various disciplines
- Universal: Seek to understand universal principles of human development
Newer Theories
- Sociocultural Theories: Emphasize cultural and social influences on development
- Evolutionary Theory: Explains development in terms of adaptation and survival
Genetics Essentials
- Chromosomes: Thread-like structures carrying genetic information
- Genes: Units of heredity, segments of DNA
- Alleles: Alternative forms of a gene
- Microbiome: Group of microbes living in the body, influences gene expression
- Zygote: Fertilized egg, unique combination of parents' genes
Stem Cells
- Stem cells: Undifferentiated cells that can develop into any type of cell
In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)
- IVF: Fertilization of egg outside the body, common for fertility treatment
CRISPR & Genetic Modification
- CRISPR: Gene editing technology, but illegal for human embryos due to ethical concerns
Types of Twins
- Monozygotic twins: Identical twins, share same genetic material
- Dizygotic twins: Fraternal twins, share 50% of genetic material
Inheritance Patterns
- Additive inheritance: Effects of multiple genes add up
- Dominant-recessive inheritance: Dominant gene prevails over recessive
Heritability
- Heritability: Statistical estimate of how much variation in a trait is due to genetics
Genetic Disorders
- Down Syndrome: Extra chromosome 21, causes intellectual disability
- Recessive conditions: Require two copies of the recessive gene
- Sickle-cell Disease: Recessive disorder common in parts of Africa, provides resistance to malaria
Genetic Counseling
- Genetic counselor: Provides information and support about genetic conditions and inheritance
Prenatal Development
-
Three Stages:
- Germinal: First two weeks, rapid cell division
- Embryonic: Weeks 3-8, major organs develop
- Fetal: Weeks 9-birth, rapid growth and organ maturation
Embryonic Development
- First structures: Neural tube, heart, limbs
Late Pregnancy (Last Three Months)
- Rapid growth: Brain development, weight gain
- Preparation for birth: Baby moves into head-down position
APGAR Scale
- APGAR: Assesses newborn's physical health
- Score: 0-10, higher score indicates healthy baby
Premature Birth & Low Birthweight
- Premature: Born before 37 weeks
- Low Birthweight: Under 5.5 pounds
- Very low Birthweight: Under 3.3 pounds
- Extremely low Birthweight: Under 2.2 pounds
Teratogens
- Teratogen: Environmental agent that can harm developing embryo or fetus
- Behavioral teratogen: Can cause subtle brain damage, affecting later behavior
Birth Stages
- First stage: Dilatation & effacement of cervix
- Second stage: Pushing, delivery of baby
- Third stage: Delivery of placenta
Newborn Sociability
- Social interaction: Newborns can mimic facial expressions, respond to sounds
Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)
- NBAS: Evaluates newborn's reflexes, state changes, and interactions
Newborn Reflexes
- Rooting: Turning head towards touch on cheek
- Sucking: Sucking on anything put in mouth
- Moro: Startle reflex, flinging arms and legs
- Grasping: Holding tightly onto fingers
Parent-Infant Bond
- Forms quickly: Through physical contact and interaction
- Important for development: Provides security and attachment
Important Newborn Issues
- Maternal depression: Can negatively impact infant development
- Fathers: Active involvement is crucial for infant well-being
- Breastfeeding: Recommended for at least 1 year, provides nutritional and health benefits
- Kangaroo care: Skin-to-skin contact with caregiver, promotes bonding and reduces stress
Early Childhood Development
- Rapid Growth: Infants grow significantly in the first year
Brain Development in Infancy
- Synaptogenesis: Formation of new connections between neurons
- Synaptic pruning: Elimination of unused connections, strengthens remaining pathways
Experience-Expectant & Experience-Dependent Growth
- Experience-expectant: Brain development relies on expected experiences
- Experience-dependent: Brain development is shaped by individual experiences
Stress and Social Deprivation
- Can have detrimental effects on early brain development
Sensory Abilities in Infancy
- Sight: Develops rapidly from blurry to sharp vision
- Hearing: Highly developed at birth
- Taste: Prefers sweet flavors
- Smell: Can distinguish different scents
- Touch: Essential for development, provides comfort and stimulation
Immunization Rates
- Declining in the US, poses health risks for children
Breastfeeding Benefits
- Nutritional: Provides ideal balance of nutrients
- Health: Reduces risk of allergies, infections, and chronic diseases
Malnutrition
- Leads to: Stunted growth, delayed development
- Disease: Increases susceptibility to disease
Emotional Development in Infancy
- First emotions: Basic, such as happiness, sadness, anger, fear
- Second year: More complex emotions emerge, like shame and guilt
Fear in Toddlers
- Common fears: Loud noises, strangers, separation from caregivers
Temperament
- Enduring: Relatively stable individual differences in behavior and emotionality
- Contextual: Can be influenced by environment
Synchrony
- Synchronized interaction: Matching emotional states and behaviors between caregiver and baby
- Importance: Promotes attachment and emotional development
Attachment
- Proximity-seeking and contact-maintaining: Behaviors infants use to stay close to caregiver
-
Four attachment styles:
- Secure: Securely attached, confident in caregiver's responsiveness
- Insecure-avoidant: Avoidant of caregiver, indifferent to their absence
- Insecure-resistant: Anxious and ambivalent towards caregiver
- Disorganized: Inconsistent and confused responses to caregiver
The Ainsworth Strange Situation
- Laboratory procedure used to assess attachment security in infants
Attachment Across Development
- Early attachment patterns can affect later relationships and social development
Social Referencing
- Toddlers look to caregivers for cues on how to react to new situations
Erikson & Attachment
- Trust vs. Mistrust: Early stage of psychosocial development, emphasizing importance of trust
- Evolutionary theories: Highlight adaptive value of attachment, promoting survival and well-being
Early Childhood Growth & Development
- Normative growth: Typical patterns of height and weight between ages 2-6
- Overfeeding: Common practice, can lead to obesity
- Obesity risk: Higher today due to changes in diet and activity levels
Brain Development (Ages 2-6)
- Myelination: Increases in brain connections, improves speed and efficiency of thinking
- Motor skills development: Affected by maturation, practice, and opportunities
Childhood Maltreatment
- Under-recognized: Previously, child maltreatment was often overlooked
- Neglect: More harmful than abuse, can have lasting impacts
- Long-term consequences: Emotional, behavioral, and social problems
Piaget's Cognitive Theory: Preoperational Stage
- Sensorimotor intelligence: Infants learn through senses and motor actions
- Preoperational thinking: Emergence of symbolic thought, language, and imagination
- Challenges: Limited ability for logical reasoning and perspective-taking
Information Processing
- Explains how children acquire, process, and store information
- Challenges Piaget's stage-like model, highlighting gradual development of cognitive abilities
Object Permanence
- Understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight
Critiques of Piaget's Theory
- Underestimates infant capabilities, some abilities develop earlier
- Stage-like development may not be universal
Visual Cliff Experiment
- 10-month-olds exhibit depth perception, refusing to crawl over visual cliff
Infant Memory
- Infants have rudimentary memory abilities
- Memory capacity and strategies develop over time
Language Development
- Rapid expansion of vocabulary and grammar skills
Egocentrism
- Child's inability to understand perspectives other than their own
Vygotsky's Social-Cultural Theory
- Social interaction and cultural tools shape cognitive development
- Private speech: Talking to oneself aids in problem-solving and learning
Bilingual Education
- Learning two languages simultaneously can enhance cognitive skills
Preschool Advantages
- Social, cognitive, and language development is enhanced
- Provides opportunities for interaction, play, and learning
Head Start Program
- Early childhood intervention program, aims to promote school readiness
- Long-term impacts: Improved academic and social outcomes
Emotional Development in Early Childhood
- Emotions become more complex
- Effortful control: Ability to regulate emotions and behavior, improves with age
Attachment in Early Childhood
- Attachment remains important for emotional security
- Parent's role evolves, becomes more collaborative
Parenting Styles
-
Baumrind's Theory:
- Authoritative: Supportive, demanding, and responsive—associated with positive child outcomes
- Authoritarian: Demanding, controlling, and less responsive—associated with obedience but also anxiety and low self-esteem
- Permissive: Warm and accepting, but low on demandingness—associated with impulsivity and difficulty with self-control
- Neglectful: Low in both responsiveness and demandingness—associated with poor self-regulation and social problems
- Limitations: Parenting styles can vary within families and across cultures
Cultural Influences On Parenting
- Parenting practices are shaped by cultural beliefs and values
- No single style is universally effective
Discipline Techniques
- Corporal punishment: Physical punishment, associated with negative child outcomes
- Induction: Explaining consequences of actions, encourages moral development
Screen Time
- Experts recommend limiting screen time for young children
- Excessive screen time: Potential for negative impacts on development
Social Development in Early Childhood
- Play: Essential for social and cognitive development
- Empathy: Ability to understand and share others' emotions
- Antipathy: Dislike or negative feelings towards others
- Prosocial behavior: Kind and helpful actions, fostered by empathy
Middle Childhood Development
- Health: Childhood habits (eating, exercise) influence later health
- Obesity: Increases risk of health problems
- IQ Tests: Measure cognitive abilities, but not a complete assessment of intelligence
Flynn Effect
- Increase in IQ scores across generations, attributed to societal changes
Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood
- Concrete Operational Stage (Piaget): Increased logical reasoning, but limited abstract thinking
Cognitive Changes In Middle Childhood
- Language: Vocabulary expands, grammar becomes more complex
- Memory: Working memory capacity improves, strategies for memory development
- Schools: Significant influence on cognitive development
Social Comparison
- Children compare themselves to others, influencing self-esteem and social development
Resilience
- Ability to overcome adversity and thrive
Family and Siblings
- Play a crucial role in social development
- Siblings: Provide opportunities for learning and interaction
Important Note: These are just key points. Your lecture notes or textbook will provide more detailed explanations.
Developmental Science
- Developmental science studies human development across the lifespan.
- The scientific method is used to study development, it is comprised of 5 steps:
- Formulate a question
- Develop a hypothesis
- Test the hypothesis
- Draw conclusions
- Report results
- The nature/nurture debate considers whether genetics or environment play a larger role in development.
- Modern science suggests that both nature and nurture are intertwined and reciprocally influence each other.
- Genetic studies focus on inherited traits, while epigenetic studies explore how environmental factors influence gene expression.
- Differential susceptibility refers to the idea that individuals vary in their sensitivity to environmental influences.
- Some aspects of development display continuity, exhibiting gradual and ongoing changes.
- A critical period is a specific time frame during which certain experiences are essential for normal development, while a sensitive period is a time when a particular experience has a greater impact than usual.
- Social contexts of life include family, peers, community, culture, and historical context.
- Cohorts are groups of individuals born around the same time and share similar experiences.
- Age groups refer to individuals within a specific age range.
- Human development is plastic, meaning that it is capable of change and adaptation throughout life.
Scientific Methods
- Observations: Observing and recording behavior in a natural setting.
- Experimental vs. Control groups: Comparing experimental groups exposed to a treatment to control groups not exposed.
- Survey: Gathering data through questionnaires or interviews.
- Cross-sectional research: Comparing individuals of different ages at the same time.
- Longitudinal research: Studying the same individuals over a period of time.
- Cross-sequential research: Combining aspects of cross-sectional and longitudinal research.
- Correlational research: Examining the relationship between two or more variables.
- Quantitative research: Collecting and analyzing numerical data.
- Qualitative research: Studying non-numerical data, such as observations or interviews.
- IRB (Institutional Review Board) is a committee that reviews and approves research involving human participants, ensuring ethical guidelines are followed.
- Ethics in developmental science is a major concern, as research must prioritize the well-being and safety of participants, especially children.
Theories of Development
- Theories serve three functions:
- They organize and interpret information.
- They guide research
- They inspire new discoveries.
- Psychoanalytic Theories:
- Freud: Emphasizes unconscious drives and early childhood experiences shaping development.
- Erikson: Focuses on psychosocial development across the lifespan.
- Behaviorism and Social Learning Theories:
- Skinner: Emphasizes the role of reinforcement and punishment in learning.
- Bandura: Focuses on observational learning and social cognition.
- Cognitive Theories:
- Piaget: Explores cognitive stages and how children construct their understanding of the world.
- Vygotsky: Emphasizes the role of social interaction and culture in cognitive development.
- Information Processing: Investigates how individuals acquire, store, and retrieve information.
Newer Theories
- Newer theories are more multicultural, multidisciplinary, and universal. They address the influence of multiple factors, including:
- Culture
- Social contexts
- Biological influences
- Sociocultural Theories: Emphasize the role of social and cultural influences on development.
- Evolutionary Theory: Focuses on the evolutionary origins of human behavior and development.
Prenatal Development
- Humans inherit 23 chromosomes from each parent, totaling 46 chromosomes and approximately 20,000 genes.
- An allele is a variation of a gene, and the microbiome, the collection of microbes in the body, has a significant impact on development.
- Each zygote is unique due to the combination of genes from both parents, and sex is determined by the father's X or Y chromosome.
- Stem cells are undifferentiated cells with the potential to become any specialized cell type.
- In vitro fertilization (IVF) involves fertilization outside the body, while a traditional pregnancy occurs naturally.
- CRISPR is a gene-editing technology that is currently illegal for human embryos due to ethical concerns.
- Monozygotic twins develop from a single fertilized egg splitting, resulting in identical twins.
- Dizygotic twins develop from separate fertilized eggs, resulting in fraternal twins.
- Additive inheritance: Traits are influenced by multiple genes, with each gene contributing a small effect.
- Dominant-recessive inheritance: One gene variant masks the effect of another.
- Heritability: Refers to the proportion of variation in a trait that is attributable to genetic factors.
- Down Syndrome: Occurs due to an extra chromosome 21, leading to cognitive impairments and developmental delays.
- Recessive conditions: Two copies of the recessive gene are required for the condition to manifest.
- Sickle-cell disease: A recessive condition that affects red blood cells, common in some parts of Africa due to its protective effect against malaria.
- Genetic counselors: Provide information about genetic conditions, risks, and options.
- Genetic counselors are bound by ethical mandates to ensure confidentiality, informed consent, and non-directive counseling.
Infant Development
- Infants grow rapidly during the first year, with significant increases in height, weight, and brain development.
- Brain development: Rapid growth and synaptic connections followed by a process of pruning, enhancing brain potential.
- Experience-expectant growth: Development that depends on common experiences.
- Experience-dependent growth: Development that depends on specific experiences.
- Stress and social deprivation can negatively impact early development.
- Infant sensory abilities mature throughout the first year, including:
- Sight: Improves from blurry vision to focusing on details.
- Sound: Progresses from recognizing basic sounds to distinguishing specific voices.
- Taste: Preferences for sweet tastes develop.
- Motor skills: Develop in a predictable sequence, from gross motor movements to fine motor skills.
- Immunizations: Essential for protecting infants from potentially life-threatening diseases.
- Breastfeeding: Provides numerous health benefits for both infants and mothers.
- Malnutrition: Can lead to physical, cognitive, and emotional impairments.
Emotions and Temperament
- Emotions: Emotions emerge in a predictable sequence, with basic emotions appearing first, followed by more complex emotions.
- Anger and sadness: Triggers include frustration, discomfort, and separation from caregivers.
- Fears: Common fears in 1-year-olds include strangers, loud noises, and sudden changes.
- Temperament: Relatively stable individual differences in emotional reactivity, activity level, and self-regulation.
- Context: Temperament is influenced by environmental factors and experiences.
- Synchrony: Coordinating interaction between parents and infants, crucial for emotional development.
- Attachment: A close emotional bond between infants and caregivers.
Attachment and Toddlers
- Proximity-seeking and contact-maintaining behavior: Infants seek closeness with caregivers and feel reassured by physical contact.
- Secure attachment: Infants feel confident and secure in their caregiver's love and support.
- Insecure-avoidant attachment: Infants avoid contact with caregivers and seem indifferent to their presence.
- Insecure-resistant attachment: Infants are anxious and ambivalent, seeking closeness but also rejecting their caregivers.
- Disorganized attachment: Infants exhibit inconsistent and sometimes contradictory behaviors, often related to past trauma.
- Ainsworth Strange Situation: A standardized assessment used to evaluate the quality of attachment between infants and caregivers.
- Social referencing: Looking to caregivers for cues about how to react to new or unfamiliar situations.
- Erikson's Trust vs. Mistrust stage: Emphasizes the importance of responsive and consistent care in establishing trust.
- Evolutionary theories: Highlight the role of parental care in ensuring the survival and well-being of infants.
Early Childhood
- Physical development: Children continue to grow, albeit at a slower pace than infancy.
-
Brain development: Myelination, the process of coating nerve fibers with a fatty substance, enhances brain function and motor skills.
- Motor skills: Improve significantly, allowing children to engage in more complex activities.
- Childhood maltreatment: Abuse and neglect can have profound and lasting consequences on children's development.
- Piaget's Preoperational stage: Children develop symbolic thought, language, and imagination, but struggle with logic and conservation concepts.
- Object permanence: Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight.
- Information processing theories: Explain cognitive development in terms of how children acquire, process, and store information.
- Memory: Infants have limited memory abilities, which improve as they develop.
- Language skills: Rapidly develop during early childhood, from simple words to complex sentences.
- Egocentrism: Difficulty understanding perspectives other than their own.
- Vygotsky's theory: Emphasizes the importance of social interaction and culture in cognitive development.
- Bilingualism: Learning two languages can offer cognitive and social advantages.
- Preschool programs: Can provide opportunities for learning, social development, and preparation for school.
Emotional Development (Early Childhood)
- Emotion regulation: The ability to control and manage emotions becomes increasingly important.
- Effortful control: The ability to inhibit impulses, manage emotions, and plan behavior.
- Attachment relationships: Continue to evolve, with increasing independence and autonomy.
-
Parenting styles: Influence children's development through their warmth, responsiveness, and expectations.
- Authoritative parenting: A style characterized by warmth, responsiveness, clear expectations, and consistent discipline.
- Authoritarian parenting: A style characterized by high demands, strict rules, and little warmth.
- Permissive parenting: A style characterized by high warmth, few rules, and little discipline.
- Neglectful parenting: A style characterized by low warmth, little involvement, and few expectations.
- Culture: Influences parenting practices and expectations.
- Corporal punishment: Physical punishment that can have negative consequences for children's development.
- Induction: A form of discipline that involves explaining the consequences of actions and helping children understand the impact of their behavior.
- Screen time: Excessive screen time can be detrimental to children's development and well-being.
- Empathy: The ability to understand and share the feelings of others.
- Prosocial behavior: Actions that benefit others.
- Play: A crucial aspect of learning, social development, and problem-solving.
Developmental Science
- Studies human development from conception to death
- Uses the scientific method:
- Observation: Gathering information through watching and recording
- Hypothesis: A testable prediction
- Experiment: A test of the hypothesis
- Data Analysis: Examining the results of the experiment
- Conclusion: Determining whether the hypothesis is supported or refuted
-
Nature vs. Nurture: Ongoing debate about the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) to development
- Modern view: Both nature and nurture interact and influence development
-
Genetics and Epigenetics:
- Genetics: Study of genes and their influence on traits
- Epigenetics: Study of how environmental factors can affect gene expression
- Differential Susceptibility: Some individuals are more susceptible to environmental influences than others
- Continuity: Aspects of development that show gradual and consistent changes
- Critical Period: Specific period in development where an experience is necessary for normal development
- Sensitive Period: Optimal time for a particular experience, but not absolutely necessary
- Social Contexts of Life: Social settings that influence development, such as family, school, culture
- Cohorts: Group of individuals born at the same time and share similar experiences
- Age Groups: Categories of individuals based on age, often used in research
- Plasticity The capacity of the brain to change and adapt over time
-
Scientific Methods:
- Experimental vs. Control Group Studies: Compare a group that receives a treatment with a group that does not
- Survey Method: Collect data through questionnaires or interviews
- Cross-Sectional Research: Compare different age groups at one point in time
- Longitudinal Research: Track the same individuals over time
- Cross-Sequential Research: Combine cross-sectional and longitudinal designs
- Correlational Research: Examine the relationship between two variables
- Quantitative Research: Collects numerical data
- Qualitative Research: Collects descriptive data
-
Institutional Review Board (IRB): Committee that reviews research protocols to ensure they are ethical
- Specific Concerns in Developmental Science: Informed consent from participants, confidentiality, protection from harm
Theories of Development
-
Functions of Theories:
- Organize information
- Provide explanations for observations
- Suggest research questions
-
Grand Theories:
-
Psychoanalytic Theories: Focus on unconscious drives and early childhood experiences
- Freud: Psychosexual stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
- Erikson: Psychosocial stages of development: trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, ego integrity vs. despair
-
Behaviorism: Focus on observable behaviors and learning through conditioning
- Skinner: Operant conditioning: reinforcement and punishment
- Bandura: Social learning theory: learning through observation and imitation
-
Cognitive Theories: Focus on mental processes and how children construct knowledge
- Piaget: Stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational
- Vygotsky: Sociocultural theory: learning occurs in social interactions and through the use of cultural tools
- Information Processing: Focuses on how individuals process information, including attention, memory, and problem-solving
-
Psychoanalytic Theories: Focus on unconscious drives and early childhood experiences
-
Newer Theories:
- Multicultural: Recognizes the influence of culture on development
- Multidisciplinary: Integrates insights from multiple disciplines
- Universal: Seeks to find commonalities in human development across cultures
- Sociocultural Theories: Emphasize the role of culture and social interaction in shaping development
- Evolutionary Theory: Applies principles of evolution to understand human development
-
Criticisms of Theories:
- Overgeneralization
- Inapplicability to diverse populations
- Limited focus on specific aspects of development
- Eclectic Approach: Using principles from multiple theories to understand human development
Prenatal Development
- Chromosomes: Structures that carry genetic information, humans have 23 pairs
- Genes: Basic units of heredity, humans have approximately 20,000 genes
- Allele: Alternative form of a gene
- Microbiome: Trillions of microorganisms that live in the human body and can influence development
- Zygote: Fertilized egg, unique due to combination of genetic material from both parents
- Sex Determination: The X and Y chromosomes determine whether a baby is male (XY) or female (XX)
- Stem Cells: Cells that have the potential to develop into any type of cell in the body
- In Vitro Fertilization (IVF): Fertilization of egg outside the body, followed by implantation in the uterus
- CRISPR: Gene-editing technology, illegal for human embryos due to ethical concerns about unintended consequences
- Monozygotic Twins: Identical twins, develop from one fertilized egg that splits
- Dizygotic Twins: Fraternal twins, develop from two separate eggs fertilized by two sperm
- Additive Inheritance: Both alleles contribute to a trait
- Dominant-Recessive Inheritance: One allele is dominant and masks the expression of the recessive allele
- Heritability: The extent to which a trait is influenced by genes
- Down Syndrome: Genetic disorder caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21
- Recessive Conditions: More likely to appear in siblings with the same parents
- Sickle-Cell Disease: A genetic disorder that affects red blood cells, more common in areas with malaria due to its protective effect
- Genetic Counselor: Provides information about genetic risks and options
- Ethical Mandates for Genetic Counselors: Confidentiality, informed consent, non-directive counseling
Prenatal Development Stages
- Germinal Stage: First two weeks after conception, marked by rapid cell division and implantation in the uterine wall
- Embryonic Stage: Weeks 3 to 8, characterized by the development of major organs and body systems
- Fetal Stage: Weeks 9 to birth, marked by rapid growth and maturation of organs
-
APGAR: Assesses newborn's health at 1 and 5 minutes after birth
- Measures: Appearance, pulse, grimace, activity, respiration
- Score: 0-10, with higher scores indicating better health
-
Premature Baby: Born before 37 weeks of gestation
- Low Birthweight: Less than 5 1/2 pounds
- Very Low Birthweight: Less than 3 pounds
- Extremely Low Birthweight: Less than 2 pounds
-
Teratogen: Any agent that can cause birth defects
- Behavioral Teratogen: Can cause subtle or long-lasting problems with learning, behavior, and mental health
-
Stages of Birth:
- Labor: First and longest stage, contractions begin
- Delivery: Baby is pushed out of the vagina
- Afterbirth: Placenta is delivered
- Newborn Social Interaction: Infants are born with reflexes and sensory abilities that help them interact with the world
- Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale: Assesses newborn's reflexes, states, and interactions
- Newborn Reflexes: Automatic responses triggered by certain stimuli
- Parent-Infant Bond: Strong, emotional connection between parent and infant
- Maternal Depression: Can negatively impact bonding and infant development
- Fathers' Role: Crucial for nurturing and supporting the mother and infant
- Breastfeeding: Provides infant with essential nutrients and antibodies
- Kangaroo Care: Skin-to-skin contact between parent and infant
Infancy
- Rapid Growth: Infants double their birth weight by 4 months and triple it by 1 year
-
Brain Development:
- Synaptogenesis: Formation of new synapses (connections between neurons)
- Myelination: Formation of a fatty sheath around axons, improving communication between neurons
- Pruning: Elimination of unused synapses, increasing brain efficiency
- Experience-Expectant Growth: Brain development that is expected based on typical experiences, such as language exposure
- Experience-Dependent Growth: Brain development that is influenced by unique experiences specific to an individual
- Stress and Social Deprivation: Can negatively impact brain development
-
Sensory Development:
- Sight: Infants can focus at about 8-12 inches and gradually develop color vision
- Sound: Infants can distinguish different sounds and are particularly drawn to human voices
- Taste: Infants can distinguish different tastes and show a preference for sweet
-
Motor Skills:
- Gross Motor Skills: Large muscle movements, such as sitting, crawling, and walking
- Fine Motor Skills: Small muscle movements, such as reaching, grasping, and manipulating objects
- Immunization: Essential for protecting infants from preventable diseases
- Breastfeeding: Recommended until at least 1 year of age to provide optimal nutrition, immunities, and bonding opportunities
- Malnutrition: Can have serious consequences for physical, cognitive, and emotional development
-
Early Emotions:
- First Year: Basic emotions, such as happiness, sadness, anger, fear, and surprise
- Second Year: More complex emotions, such as embarrassment, shame, and guilt
- Triggers for Anger and Sadness: Frustration, pain, and loss
- Common Fears in 1-Year-Olds: Loud noises, strangers, and separation from caregivers
-
Temperament: Inborn behavioral style and emotional reactivity
- Enduring Traits: Some temperament traits tend to persist into adulthood
- Contextual Influence: Environment can influence how temperament is expressed
- Synchrony: Coordinated interaction between caregiver and infant, important for emotional development
-
Attachment: Enduring emotional bond between infant and caregiver
- Proximity-Seeking: Desire to be close to the caregiver
- Contact-Maintaining: Desire to maintain physical contact with the caregiver
-
Attachment Styles:
- Secure Attachment: Infant feels confident in the caregiver's availability and responsiveness
- Insecure-Avoidant Attachment: Infant avoids contact with the caregiver and shows little distress when separated
- Insecure-Resistant Attachment: Infant is anxious and ambivalent toward the caregiver and resistant to comfort
- Disorganized Attachment: Infant exhibits confused and contradictory behaviors, suggesting a history of trauma or abuse
- Ainsworth Strange Situation: Laboratory assessment of attachment that involves separation and reunion with the caregiver
- Attachment Across Development: Attachment patterns established in infancy can influence relationships throughout life
- Social Referencing: Using caregiver's facial expressions and vocal cues to interpret situations, important for toddlerhood
-
Theoretical Perspectives on Attachment:
- Erikson: Trust vs. Mistrust: Early experiences of trust and care are crucial for developing a sense of security and confidence
- Evolutionary Theories: Attachment serves an adaptive function, ensuring infants' survival and protection
- Parental Care: Consistent care, responsiveness, and sensitivity are essential for healthy attachment and development
Early Childhood
- Normative Growth: Height and weight increase at a slower pace than in infancy
- Obesity: Increased risk due to sedentary lifestyles and unhealthy eating habits
- Brain Growth: Rapid growth in the prefrontal cortex, important for executive functions, such as planning, reasoning, and impulse control
- Myelination: Continues to develop, improving cognitive and motor skills
-
Motor Skills Development: Influenced by:
- Maturation: Natural physical changes
- Practice: Opportunities to use skills
- Guidance: Support from caregivers and others
- Childhood Injury Rates: High, especially among toddlers, due to their physical and cognitive limitations
- Childhood Maltreatment: Abuse or neglect, has serious consequences for physical, cognitive, and emotional development
- Neglect: More harmful than abuse, as it creates a sense of worthlessness and insecurity
- Long-Term Consequences of Maltreatment: Increased risk of physical and mental health problems, relationship difficulties, and criminal behavior
- Piaget's Preoperational Stage: Ages 2-6, characterized by symbolic thought, but limited by egocentrism and centration
- Object Permanence: Understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight, develops in infancy
- Information Processing Theories: Explain cognitive development in terms of changes in attention, memory, and problem-solving abilities
- Visual Cliff Experiment: Demonstrates that infants have depth perception by age 10 months
- Early Memory Abilities: Infants have some memory abilities, but they are limited and become more sophisticated with age
- Language Development: Rapid growth in vocabulary, grammar, and pragmatics
- Egocentrism: Difficulty taking another person's perspective
- Vygotsky and Self-Talk: Talking to oneself helps to guide thought and learning
- Bilingualism: Benefits of learning two languages, including improved cognitive flexibility and attention
- Preschool: Can provide opportunities for learning, socialization, and development
- Head Start Program: Early childhood intervention program designed to improve school readiness and address inequalities
-
Emotional Development in Early Childhood:
- Increased Understanding of Emotions: Children learn to identify and label their own emotions and those of others
- Emotional Regulation: Ability to control and manage emotions, becomes more sophisticated as children age
- Effortful Control: Ability to inhibit impulses, regulate emotions, and focus attention
- Attachment in Early Childhood: Continue to develop, but become less focused on physical closeness and more on emotional support
-
Parenting Styles:
- Authoritative: High in warmth and control, clear expectations, encourage independence
- Authoritarian: High in control, low in warmth, discourage questioning of rules
- Permissive: Low in control, high in warmth, few rules and few expectations
- Neglectful: Low in both warmth and control, uninvolved
- Baumrind's Theory: Authoritative parenting style associated with the most favorable outcomes
- Cultural Influence on Parenting: Parenting styles vary across cultures
- Corporal Punishment: Use of physical force to discipline, associated with negative outcomes
- Induction: Explaining the consequences of behavior and helping children understand why certain behaviors are wrong, considered an effective form of discipline
- Screen Time: Experts recommend limiting screen time for young children
- Empathy and Antipathy: Developing understanding and capacity for empathy and its reciprocal, antipathy, through play and social interactions
- Prosocial Behaviour: Actions intended to help others, influenced by empathy and moral development
Middle Childhood
-
Health Habits: Influence adult health
- Obesity: Increased risk of chronic health problems, such as diabetes and heart disease
- Physical Activity: Important for physical and mental health
- IQ Tests: Measure cognitive abilities, but do not fully reflect intelligence
- Flynn Effect: Increases in IQ scores over time, possibly due to improved nutrition, education, and technology
- Brain Scans: May provide insights into cognitive functioning, but not a replacement for traditional intelligence tests
- Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage: Ages 7-11, characterized by logical thinking, understanding of conservation, and ability to perform mental operations
- Language Development in Middle Childhood: Refined grammar, increased vocabulary, and improved understanding of language nuances
- Memory: Working memory improves, allowing children to hold more information in mind and process it more efficiently
- Schooling: Plays a critical role in cognitive, social, and emotional development
- Social Comparison: Comparing oneself to others, important for self-esteem and social understanding
-
Resilience: Ability to bounce back from adversity, influenced by:
- Protective Factors: Positive social support, coping skills, and belief in oneself
- Risk Factors: Poverty, trauma, and neglect
- Family and Siblings: Continue to be important sources of social support and influence during middle childhood
- Peer Groups: Increased importance of peer relationships, providing opportunities for social learning and identity development
-
Moral Development: Continues to develop, influenced by:
- Cognitive Factors: Ability to reason about right and wrong
- Social Factors: Influence of parents, teachers, and peers
- Emotional Factors: Empathy and guilt
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Explore the fascinating aspects of developmental science, including the lifelong processes of human growth and the intricate nature versus nurture debate. This quiz examines genetics, epigenetics, and the concepts of continuity and discontinuity in development. Test your understanding of how both genetic and environmental factors shape our lives.
