Developmental Science Quiz
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Questions and Answers

What are the primary functions of theories in developmental science?

  • To offer frameworks that organize information and guide research. (correct)
  • To provide definitive answers and eliminate uncertainty.
  • To analyze data and create laws.
  • To describe, predict, and control behavior. (correct)

    • How many chromosomes do humans typically possess?

  • 39
  • 23
  • 48
  • 46 (correct)

    • What is the main distinction between a critical period and a sensitive period in development?

  • Sensitive periods only occur during infancy, while critical periods happen during adulthood.
  • Critical periods involve irreversible change; sensitive periods do not. (correct)
  • Critical periods are less important than sensitive periods.
  • Critically timed events require specific stimuli, while sensitive periods allow for some flexibility. (correct)

    • What distinguishes epigenetics from genetic studies?

    <p>Epigenetics involves changes in gene expression rather than changes to the DNA sequence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of human development is defined as being adaptable to change?

    <p>Plasticity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following accurately describes a function of the Institutional Review Board (IRB)?

    <p>To review ethical issues concerning research involving human subjects.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a fundamental difference between in vitro fertilization (IVF) and traditional pregnancy?

    <p>IVF occurs outside the body, while traditional pregnancy occurs inside the body.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines a stem cell?

    <p>A cell that can differentiate into various cell types.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does emotional regulation play in early childhood development?

    <p>It facilitates better social interactions and relationships.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which parenting style is associated with promoting the happiness and success of children according to Baumrind's theory?

    <p>Authoritative parenting with high demands and responsiveness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one limitation of Baumrind's description of parenting styles?

    <p>It ignores cultural differences in parenting practices.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can corporal punishment influence child discipline?

    <p>It may increase immediate compliance but can lead to negative long-term behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is crucial for developing resilience in children?

    <p>Strong family connections and supportive relationships</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary aim of the Ainsworth Strange Situation in assessing children?

    <p>To evaluate emotional responses to new situations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which attachment type is characterized by inconsistent caregiver responses?

    <p>Resistant attachment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a critical role of social referencing in toddlerhood?

    <p>Guiding toddlers' emotional responses to unfamiliar situations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do evolutionary theories emphasize regarding parental care?

    <p>Parental involvement is crucial for survival</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did childhood obesity rates compare between today’s children and those from 50 years ago?

    <p>They are higher today</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of myelination during early childhood?

    <p>It enhances cognitive functions and motor skills</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes egocentrism in children?

    <p>A lack of awareness of one's impact on others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the observed benefits of multilingual education for children?

    <p>It enhances cognitive abilities and cultural awareness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What long-term outcome is associated with participation in Head Start programs?

    <p>Improved academic performance over time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is childhood neglect often considered more detrimental than abuse?

    <p>Neglect impacts essential needs like safety and emotional support</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is heritability in the context of genetics?

    <p>The proportion of variation in a trait that can be attributed to genetic factors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes Down syndrome?

    <p>A genetic condition caused by a duplication of chromosome 21.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is sickle-cell disease more prevalent in certain regions of Africa?

    <p>Protection against malaria offered by the sickle-cell trait.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three stages of prenatal development?

    <p>Germinal, embryonic, fetal.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the APGAR score assess after birth?

    <p>Physical conditions such as heart rate, respiratory effort, and muscle tone.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes a behavioral teratogen?

    <p>Agents that can affect the brain's development.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of a genetic counselor?

    <p>To assist individuals in understanding genetic risks and options.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a typical fear in 1-year-old infants?

    <p>Fear of unfamiliar individuals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following emotions typically appears first in infants?

    <p>Happiness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What differentiates experience-expectant growth from experience-dependent growth?

    <p>Experience-dependent growth occurs in response to specific individual experiences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three factors that contribute to the development of motor skills in children?

    <p>Cognitive development, environmental challenges, and parental involvement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best explains Erikson's theory of trust vs. mistrust in early childhood?

    <p>The impact of social comparison on a child's development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it challenging to accurately determine the incidence of child maltreatment?

    <p>Lack of standardized definitions and varying cultural perceptions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the phenomenon of social referencing in toddlers?

    <p>Utilizing the emotional responses of caregivers to guide their own actions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What long-term developmental benefits has research associated with participation in preschool programs like Head Start?

    <p>A stronger identity formation during adolescence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What explains the extent of brain growth observed in children ages 2 to 6?

    <p>Continuous myelination of nerve fibers to support cognitive tasks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect is frequently criticized regarding Piaget’s understanding of cognition in early childhood?

    <p>His rigid categorization of cognitive stages without overlapping features</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon describes when 10-month-old infants refuse to crawl over visual cliffs?

    <p>Emerging self-preservation instincts influencing actions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do current children face a higher risk of obesity compared to children 50 years ago?

    <p>Decreased physical activity due to increased screen time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes low birthweight from very low birthweight in newborns?

    <p>Low birthweight is below 5.5 pounds, very low birthweight is below 3.3 pounds.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which best explains experience-expectant growth in infants?

    <p>Growth that relies on universal human experiences during development.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of the Brazelton scale?

    <p>To evaluate a newborn's reflexes and responsiveness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can maternal depression impact the parent-infant bond?

    <p>It may hinder the formation of a secure attachment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the term 'teratogen'?

    <p>A substance that causes malformations in fetal development.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately differentiates between emotional responses in the first and second years of life?

    <p>Second-year emotions include more complex feelings like pride and shame.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of genetic counselors in prenatal settings?

    <p>To provide information and support about genetic conditions and risks.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic effect of social deprivation on early development?

    <p>Deficits in cognitive growth.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does proximity-seeking attachment manifest in infants?

    <p>By actively trying to stay close to caregivers and maintain contact.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about common recessive conditions is true?

    <p>They can remain unnoticed until both parents pass on the recessive allele.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes a cohort from an age group in developmental studies?

    <p>Cohorts are defined by shared life experiences, while age groups are solely based on age.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theory focuses on the social context of learning and development, particularly through interaction with more knowledgeable others?

    <p>Sociocultural theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one key argument in favor of adopting an eclectic approach to developmental theories?

    <p>It allows for a comprehensive understanding by integrating diverse perspectives.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do genetics and epigenetics fundamentally differ in the context of individual development?

    <p>Genetics refers to inherited traits, while epigenetics involves changes that can occur due to environmental factors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the concept of differential susceptibility in developmental studies?

    <p>Some individuals are more influenced by positive and negative experiences than others due to their genetic makeup.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which research method involves collecting data from subjects of different ages at the same time?

    <p>Cross-sectional research</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What ethical issue is often a concern for Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) in developmental science?

    <p>Preventing potential psychological harm to children participating in studies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of inheritance indicates that the presence of one dominant allele can mask the expression of a recessive allele?

    <p>Dominant-recessive inheritance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do the roles of theories in developmental science mainly differ from one another?

    <p>Theories vary in their foundational assumptions about human progression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What major breakthrough in neuroscience has fundamentally shifted our understanding compared to previous psychological theories?

    <p>The identification of neural processes underlying thought and emotion.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key feature of effortful control in early childhood?

    <p>The ability to control one's emotions and behaviors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does induction as a form of punishment typically have on children's behavior?

    <p>It fosters an understanding of the consequences of their actions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does culture influence parenting styles?

    <p>It shapes the expectations and values within families.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is social comparison particularly influential during middle childhood?

    <p>Children seek validation and their self-worth becomes linked to peer evaluations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What limitation is commonly cited regarding traditional IQ tests?

    <p>They often overlook cultural and environmental influences on intelligence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is often a psychological outcome of corporal punishment according to recent studies?

    <p>Increased levels of anxiety and aggression in children.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Baumrind's theory, which parenting style leads to the most successful outcomes in children?

    <p>Authoritative.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What key characteristic differentiates concrete operational thought from earlier cognitive stages as per Piaget?

    <p>The understanding of conservation and reversible actions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Flynn effect often attributed to?

    <p>Improvements in educational practices and societal factors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is empathy typically developed in children during play?

    <p>Through collaborative activities that involve sharing and cooperation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition is commonly associated with an extra chromosome 21?

    <p>Down syndrome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of growth occurs as a result of specific life experiences and is unique to an individual?

    <p>Experience-dependent growth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of the APGAR scoring system in newborns?

    <p>To evaluate immediate post-birth health</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is considered a behavioral teratogen?

    <p>Alcohol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes extremely low birth weight in infants?

    <p>Less than 3.3 pounds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which emotional response typically emerges as the first in infants?

    <p>Sadness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In terms of motor skill development, which factor is least likely to contribute significantly?

    <p>Parental attachment styles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'synchrony' refer to in the context of early emotional development?

    <p>Simultaneous emotional experiences of infants and caregivers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect is most critically affected by stress or social deprivation during early development?

    <p>Social skills</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of a genetic counselor?

    <p>To provide information about genetic risks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does effortful control manifest in early childhood?

    <p>The ability to delay gratification and regulate emotional responses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which parenting style is most linked to producing independent and self-reliant children according to Baumrind's findings?

    <p>Authoritative</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common misconception regarding the impact of corporal punishment on child behavior?

    <p>It can lead to increased aggression in children</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a limitation of Baumrind's description of parenting styles?

    <p>It fails to consider the dynamic nature of parenting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is significant in explaining the Flynn effect?

    <p>Changes in educational methodologies and environments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of middle childhood, what role do siblings play in a child's emotional development?

    <p>Siblings can serve as emotional support and models for social interaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do experts advocate for limiting children's screen time?

    <p>Excessive screen time can hinder social development and physical health</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes the concepts of nature and nurture in developmental science?

    <p>Nature refers to genetics, whereas nurture refers to environmental factors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an incorrect view of induction as a form of discipline?

    <p>It is less effective than physical punishment in all situations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following methods best supports tracking developmental changes over time in the same individuals?

    <p>Longitudinal research</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic is NOT associated with prosocial behavior development in children?

    <p>Engaging in competitive play to win</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does culture influence parenting style?

    <p>Cultural values dictate the expectations and behaviors of parents</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between monozygotic and dizygotic twins?

    <p>Monozygotic twins are genetically identical, while dizygotic twins share about 50% of their genes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following theories addresses how human behavior and development are influenced by social interactions and cultural context?

    <p>Sociocultural theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What fundamental principle underlies the concept of differential susceptibility in development?

    <p>Genetic predispositions make some individuals more susceptible to environmental changes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which research method involves comparing groups of different ages at a single point in time?

    <p>Cross-sectional research</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which attachment type in children is reflected by high anxiety and avoidance of proximity to caregivers?

    <p>Insecure-avoidant attachment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What critical ethical concern is commonly addressed by Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) in developmental research?

    <p>Ensuring participant anonymity and confidentiality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Social referencing in toddlers primarily develops their ability to:

    <p>Evaluate emotional cues in ambiguous situations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the impact of the microbiome on human genetics?

    <p>Microbiome can influence gene expression and overall health.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What common factor contributes to the observed rise in childhood obesity compared to children from 50 years ago?

    <p>Decreased physical activity due to digital entertainment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one significant criticism of behavioral theories in explaining human development?

    <p>They overlook the genetic contributions to behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes additive inheritance from dominant-recessive inheritance?

    <p>Additive inheritance involves multiple genes contributing to a trait, while dominant-recessive involves one dominant gene overpowering a recessive gene.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In cognitive development, Piaget's first stage, known as sensorimotor intelligence, focuses primarily on which aspect?

    <p>Learning through direct sensory and motor interactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What critical factor differentiates egocentrism in children from selfishness in adults?

    <p>Cognitive development and perspective-taking abilities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The long-term consequences of childhood maltreatment often include which of the following effects?

    <p>Higher rates of mental health disorders</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is myelination considered significant for both thinking and motor skills during early childhood?

    <p>It enhances the speed and efficiency of neural transmissions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Vygotsky believed that self-talk in children primarily serves which cognitive function?

    <p>Facilitating cognitive processing and problem-solving</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What key insight is increasingly recognized about childhood neglect compared to abuse?

    <p>Neglect typically results in more severe developmental issues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The goals of the Head Start program focus primarily on which aspect of child development?

    <p>Providing educational resources to low-income families</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Developmental Science

    • Studies how people change throughout their lives.
    • Scientific Method:
      • Observation: Gathering information.
      • Hypothesis: A prediction that can be tested.
      • Experiment: A controlled study to test the hypothesis.
      • Interpret Results: Analyzing data to determine whether the hypothesis is supported.
      • Disseminate Findings: Sharing results through scientific publications.
    • Nature vs. Nurture:
      • Whether development is primarily influenced by genetic inheritance (nature) or experience (nurture).
      • Current View: Both genetics and experience play critical roles, and their interplay shapes our development.
    • Genetics and Epigenetics:
      • Genetics: Study of inherited genes.
      • Epigenetics: Study of how environmental factors can influence gene expression.
      • Differential Susceptibility: The idea that some individuals are more sensitive to their environment than others.
      • Example: Some people are more vulnerable to the effects of stress due to their genetic makeup.
    • Continuity:
      • Some aspects of development occur gradually and continuously.
      • Example: Language acquisition unfolds smoothly.
    • Critical Periods vs. Sensitive Periods:
      • Critical Period: A specific time during development when certain experiences have a profound and irreversible impact.
      • Sensitive Period: A time when a particular experience is especially influential, but development remains flexible.
    • Social Contexts of Life:
      • Family, community, culture, and socioeconomic status all influence development.
    • Cohort (generation) vs Age Group:
      • Cohort: A group of people born at the same time.
      • Age Group: A group of people with similar ages (e.g., teenagers, seniors).
    • Plasticity:
      • Human development is flexible and can be molded by experiences across the lifespan.

    Scientific Methods

    • Observations:
      • Observing and recording behavior in natural settings.
      • Example: Observing how children interact with their peers on a playground.
    • Experimental Research:
      • Manipulating variables to determine the cause-and-effect relationship between them.
      • Example: Randomly assigning children to different groups, one receiving a new educational program, and the other not.
    • Control Group Studies:
      • A group that does not receive the experimental treatment.
      • Used to compare results and determine the effectiveness of the treatment.
    • Survey Methods:
      • Collecting data through questionnaires, interviews, or polls.
      • Example: Surveying parents about their parenting practices.
    • Cross-Sectional Research:
      • Comparing people of different ages at a single point in time.
      • Example: Studying the language abilities of 5-year-olds, 10-year-olds, and 15-year-olds.
    • Longitudinal Research:
      • Studying the same group of people over a long period.
      • Example: Tracking the development of a group of children from infancy to adulthood.
    • Cross-Sequential Research:
      • Combining aspects of both cross-sectional and longitudinal research.
      • Example: Studying different age groups over a period of time.
    • Correlational Research:
      • Examining the relationship between two or more variables.
      • Example: Studying the correlation between screen time and attention problems.
    • Quantitative Research:
      • Measuring and collecting numerical data.
      • Example: Using standardized tests to measure intelligence or academic achievements.
    • Qualitative Research:
      • Collecting and analyzing non-numerical data, such as interviews, observations, or documents.
      • Example: Conducting interviews with adolescents to understand their experiences with social media.
    • Institutional Review Board (IRB):
      • A committee that reviews and approves research involving human subjects.
      • Ethical Concerns for Developmental Science:
        • Protecting children from harm and ensuring informed consent.
        • Confidentiality and privacy.

    Theories of Development

    • Functions of Theories:
      • Help explain observed phenomena.
      • Guide research and development.
      • Promote understanding.
    • Grand Theories:
      • Psychoanalytic Theories:
        • Freud: Unconscious drives and early childhood experiences shape personality.
        • Erikson: Psychosocial development across the lifespan.
        • Strengths: Emphasizes the importance of early relationships and emotional development.
        • Weaknesses: Hard to test empirically, focuses on childhood, and overlooks cultural influences.
      • Behaviorism:
        • Skinner: Behavior is shaped through reinforcement and punishment.
        • Strengths: Focuses on observable behavior and environmental influences.
        • Weaknesses: Neglects internal mental processes, limitations in generalizability.
      • Social Learning Theory: (Bandura)
        • Learning by observing and imitating others.
        • Strengths: Explains cultural influences and the role of social contexts.
        • Weaknesses: Oversimplifies learning and the power of individual choice.
      • Cognitive Theories:
        • Piaget: Cognitive development occurs in stages.
        • Vygotsky: Sociocultural influences on cognitive development.
        • Information Processing: Cognitive processes are like a computer system (encoding, storage, retrieval).
        • Strengths: Highlights cognitive abilities and their development.
        • Weaknesses: May underestimate the role of social and emotional factors.
    • Neuroscience:
      • Has provided insights into the brain's development that were impossible for earlier theories to explore.
    • Newer Theories:
      • Multicultural:
        • Emphasizes the importance of culture and diversity in understanding development.
      • Multidisciplinary:
        • Integrates insights from different disciplines.
      • Universal:
        • Seeks to identify common developmental patterns across cultures.
    • Sociocultural Theories:
      • Emphasize the role of culture and social interaction in development.
    • Evolutionary Theory:
      • Focuses on the adaptive value of behaviors and traits.
    • Criticisms of Theories:
      • Each theory has limitations and may not fully account for all aspects of development.
    • Eclectic Approach:
      • Using multiple theories to understand human development.
      • Benefits:
        • Offers a more comprehensive view of human development.
        • Provides a range of explanations for complex behaviors.

    Genetics and Reproduction

    • Chromosomes: Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).
    • Genes: Units of heredity that determine traits.
    • Alleles: Different forms of a gene.
    • Microbiome: The collection of bacteria and other microorganisms living in the body. It can influence health and development.
    • Zygote: A fertilized egg is unique due to the combination of chromosomes and genes from both parents.
      • Sex Determination: Whether a baby is a boy (XY) or a girl (XX) is determined by the father.
    • Stem Cells: Undifferentiated cells with the potential to develop into any type of specialized cell.
    • In Vitro Fertilization (IVF): Conception outside the body.
    • Traditional Pregnancy: Conception occurs naturally in the woman's body.
    • CRISPR: Gene-editing technology; illegal to use in humans due to ethical concerns.
    • Monozygotic Twins: Identical twins develop from one fertilized egg.
    • Dizygotic Twins: Fraternal twins develop from two separate eggs.
    • Additive Inheritance:
      • Traits are influenced by multiple genes.
    • Dominant-Recessive Inheritance:
      • One allele (dominant) masks the effect of another (recessive).
    • Heritability:
      • The amount of variation in a trait that is due to genetic factors.
    • Down Syndrome:
      • A genetic condition caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21.
    • Recessive Conditions:
      • Traits that only appear when an individual inherits two copies of the recessive allele.
    • Sickle-Cell Disease:
      • A genetic disorder that affects red blood cells.
      • More common in Africa due to its protective effect against malaria.
    • Genetic Counselor:
      • A healthcare professional who provides information about genetic risks and counseling.
      • Ethical Mandates: Confidentiality, informed consent, non-directive counseling.

    Prenatal Development

    • Three Stages:
      • Germinal Stage: (0-2 weeks) Zygote implants in the uterine wall.
      • Embryonic Stage: (3-8 weeks) Major organ systems develop.
      • Fetal Stage: (9 weeks to birth) Continued growth and development.
    • Early Embryonic Development:
      • The neural tube (future brain and spinal cord) and the heart begin to form.
    • Last Three Months of Pregnancy:
      • Maturation of organs.
      • Rapid weight gain.
    • APGAR: A test given to newborns to assess their health.
      • Measures: Heart rate, breathing, muscle tone, reflexes, and skin color.
      • Scores: 0-10. Lower scores indicate lower health.
    • Premature Infants:
      • Born before 37 weeks.
      • Low Birthweight: <5 1/2 pounds.
      • Very Low Birthweight: < 3 1/2 pounds.
      • Extremely Low Birthweight: < 2 1/2 pounds.
    • Teratogen:
      • Any environmental agent that can cause harm to an embryo or fetus.
      • Behavioral Teratogens:
        • Can cause long-term cognitive impairment.
        • Impact is difficult to determine due to the complexity of factors influencing behavior.
    • Stages of Birth:
      • Labor: Contractions to dilate the cervix.
      • Delivery: Pushing the baby out.
      • Placenta
      • Afterbirth: Expulsion of the placenta.
    • Newborn Social Interaction:
      • Newborns are capable of some social skills:
        • Eye contact
        • Smiling (social smile)
        • Cooing
    • Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale:
      • A neurobehavioral assessment given to newborns to assess their motor skills, reflexes, state regulation, and social responsiveness.
    • Newborn Reflexes:
      • Involuntary, automatic movements:
        • Rooting Reflex: Turning the head when touched on the cheek to search for nipple.
        • Sucking Reflex: Sucking on objects placed near the mouth.
        • Moro Reflex: Startle reflex: Arching the back and extending the arms in response to a sudden noise.
        • Grasping Reflex: Grasping objects that touch the palm.
    • Parent-Infant Bond:
      • A strong emotional connection between a parent and a child.
      • Forms through interactions, caregiving, and mutual affection.
    • Important Newborn Issues
      • Maternal Depression: Can impair bonding and child development.
      • Fathers: Active involvement is important for child development.
      • Breastfeeding: Provides numerous benefits to both mother and baby, but must be done safely.
      • Kangaroo Care: Skin-to-skin contact between a parent and baby, can help regulate infant physiological functioning and promote bonding.

    Infancy

    • Rapid Growth:
      • Babies grow rapidly in the first year.
    • Brain Development:
      • Pruning: Unused connections between brain cells are eliminated.
      • Experience-Expectant Growth: Brain development depends on expected experiences, such as early visual and auditory stimulation.
      • Experience-Dependent Growth: Brain development is shaped by unique experiences, such as learning a new language.
    • Stress and Social Deprivation:
      • Can negatively impact brain development and impair cognitive abilities.
    • Sensory Development:
      • Babies are born with a surprising range of senses.
      • Sight: Initially blurry, improving rapidly.
      • Hearing: Well-developed at birth, even preferring their mother's voice.
      • Taste: Preference for sweet tastes, ability to discriminate different tastes.
      • Motor Skills: Progressing from reflexes (grasping, sucking, and rooting) to controlled movements (rolling, sitting, crawling, and walking).
    • Immunization:
      • Protecting children from contagious diseases.
      • Consequences of Low Vaccination Rates: Outbreaks of preventable diseases.
    • Breastfeeding:
      • Recommended for at least one year, provides antibodies and nutrients.
    • Malnutrition:
      • Consequences: Impaired growth, cognitive development, and immune system function.
    • Emotions:
      • Early Emotions: Basic emotions (joy, sadness, anger, disgust, and fear).
      • Later Emotions: Complex emotions (pride, shame, guilt, and empathy) develop later in the second year.
    • Triggers for Anger and Sadness:
      • Frustration, pain, and unmet needs.
    • Fears in 1-Year-Olds:
      • Stranger anxiety, separation anxiety.
    • Temperament:
      • Inborn personality traits that influence how a child responds to their environment.
      • Endurance: Temperament is relatively stable.
      • Context: Temperament interacts with the environment.
    • Synchrony:
      • The coordinated interaction between a parent and an infant, plays a role in emotional regulation.
    • Attachment:
      • The enduring bond between a child and a primary caregiver.
      • Proximity-Seeking and Contact-Maintaining
      • Attachment Types:
        • Secure Attachment:
          • Child explores independently but seeks comfort from caregiver.
          • Caregivers respond consistently to their child's needs.
        • Insecure-Avoidant Attachment:
          • Avoids caregiver and shows little emotion.
          • Caregivers are often unresponsive to their child's needs.
        • Insecure-Resistant Attachment:
          • Clings to caregiver, distressed when separated, and difficult to soothe.
          • Caregivers are inconsistent and sometimes overprotective.
        • Disorganized Attachment:
          • Child shows confused and contradictory behaviors.
          • Caregivers are frightening or inconsistent.
    • Ainsworth Strange Situation:
      • A laboratory procedure for assessing attachment.
      • Observing the child's reactions during separations and reunions with the caregiver.
    • Attachment Across Development:
      • Attachment security is linked to later social, emotional, and cognitive development.
    • Social Referencing:
      • Infants look to their caregiver for cues on how to react to new situations.
    • Erikson's Trust vs. Mistrust:
      • First stage of psychosocial development.
      • The development of trust depends on the consistency and responsiveness of caregivers.
    • Evolutionary Theories of Attachment:
      • Attachment is an adaptive mechanism to ensure survival and well-being.

    Early Childhood (Ages 2-6)

    • Physical Growth:
      • Height and Weight: Children grow steadily during this period.
      • Overfeeding: Can lead to obesity.
      • Obesity Risks:
        • Increased risk of chronic diseases in adulthood.
    • Brain Development:
      • Rapid growth; connections are strengthened.
      • Myelination: The process that speeds up transmission of neural signals.
    • Motor Skills:
      • Gross Motor Skills: Larger movements, like running and jumping.
      • Fine Motor Skills: Smaller movements, like drawing and writing.
    • Childhood Injury:
      • Common during this period.
      • Cause: More active and exploring, less cautious than adults.
    • Child Maltreatment:
      • Physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect.
      • Neglect: More harmful than abuse.
      • Difficulty in Determining Prevalence:
        • Reporting is unreliable.
      • Long-Term Consequences:
        • Emotional, social, and behavioral problems.
    • Piaget's Preoperational Thinking:
      • Sensorimotor Intelligence: Ability to explore the world through senses and motor skills.
      • Preoperational Thought: Language, symbol use, and imaginative play, but limited in logical thinking.
    • Information Processing:
      • Focuses on how children process information, including memory, attention, and problem-solving.
    • Object Permanence:
      • Understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight.
    • Critiques of Piaget:
      • Underestimated the abilities of young children.
    • Visual Cliff:
      • Shows that infants develop a fear of heights.
    • Early Memory:
      • Infants have some memory capacity, but it develops with age.
    • Language Development:
      • Tremendous growth:
        • Vocabulary: Rapidly expands.
        • Grammar: Begins to use correct grammar.
      • Talking to Oneself:
        • (Vygotsky)
          • Helps children learn and regulate their behavior.
    • Egocentrism:
      • Difficulty in understanding another person's perspective.
    • Bilingualism:
      • Benefits: Cognitive flexibility, language skills, and academic achievements.
    • Preschool:
      • Benefits: Social, cognitive, and emotional development.
    • Head Start Program:
      • Early intervention program.
      • Goals: Improve early childhood development, preparing children for school.
      • Long-Term Results:
        • Positive academic achievements, social skills, and overall well-being.
    • Emotional Development:
      • Emotion Regulation: Learning to control emotions.
      • Effortful Control:
        • The ability to inhibit impulses, manage emotions, and plan behaviors.
    • Attachment and Parental Roles in Early Childhood:
      • Attachment remains important.
      • Parents continue to provide support and guidance.
    • Parenting Styles (Baumrind):
      • Authoritative:
        • High expectations, warmth, and responsiveness.
        • Positive outcomes for children.
      • Authoritarian:
        • High expectations, strict rules, and little warmth.
        • Can lead to anxiety and low self-esteem.
      • Permissive:
        • Few rules and boundaries, high levels of warmth.
        • Can lead to impulsivity and difficulty with self-regulation.
      • Uninvolved:
        • Low involvement, little warmth or rules.
        • Can lead to problems with academic and social development.
    • Culture and Parenting:
      • Parenting styles vary across cultures.
    • Corporal Punishment:
      • Using physical force to discipline children.
      • Negative Outcomes:
        • Increased aggression, anxiety, and relationship problems.
    • Induction:
      • Explaining the consequences of behavior and helping children understand why it is wrong.
      • Advantages:
        • Promotes internalization of moral values.
    • Screen Time:
      • Experts recommend limited screen time for young children.
      • Effects:
        • Can be disruptive to development.
        • Can lead to poor attention span and sleep problems.
    • Play:
      • Essential for social and emotional development.
      • Empathy: Understanding and sharing another person's feelings.
      • Prosocial Behavior: Helping, sharing, and showing compassion for others.

    Middle Childhood (Ages 6-11)

    • Health Habits:
      • Affect adult health.
    • Obesity:
      • Rates continue to rise.
      • Consequences:
        • Health problems, social stigma.
    • Intelligence:
      • Traditional IQ Tests: Measure cognitive abilities, including verbal, reasoning, and spatial abilities.
      • Flynn Effect: Increases in IQ scores across generations.
      • Brain Scans: Not a replacement for IQ tests, but can provide valuable insights.
    • Piaget's Concrete Operational Thought:
      • Children develop logical reasoning and can perform mental operations.
    • Language Development:
      • Vocabulary, grammar, and comprehension continue to develop.
    • Memory:
      • Working Memory: The ability to hold information in mind and use it for tasks.
      • Improves during this period.
    • School:
      • Provides opportunities for cognitive, social, and emotional development.
    • Social Comparison:
      • Comparing oneself to others, can be motivating or damaging to self-esteem.
    • Resilience:
      • The ability to bounce back from adversity.
      • Factors:
        • Protective factors, support systems.
    • Family and Siblings:
      • Important influences on social development.
      • Siblings:
        • Provide opportunities for learning and social interaction.

    Developmental Science

    • Studies how humans grow and change throughout their lives
    • Scientific Method
      • 1. Curiosity/Question: Starts with an observation or a question.
      • 2. Hypothesis: A prediction about what will happen.
      • 3. Test: Designing an experiment to test the hypothesis.
      • 4. Analyze the Data: Observing and interpreting the results from the experiment.
      • 5. Report Results: Sharing findings with other scientists.
    • Nature vs Nurture: The ongoing debate about how much influence our genes (nature) and our environment (nurture) have on our development. Current view: Both are important and interact.

    Genetics and Epigenetics

    • Genetics: The study of our genes and how they are inherited.
    • Epigenetics: The study of how the environment can affect gene expression (turning genes on or off), impacting development.
    • Differential Susceptibility: Some people are more vulnerable to certain environmental influences than others.

    Continuity and Discontinuity

    • Continuity: Development that occurs gradually.
    • Discontinuity: Development that occurs in distinct stages.

    Periods of Development

    • Critical Period: A specific time in development when certain experiences are crucial for normal development.
    • Sensitive Period: A time when development is most susceptible to particular influences, but not irreversible.

    Social Contexts of Life

    • Cohort: A group of people born around the same time.
    • Age Group: A group of people of a similar age.

    Plasticity in Development

    • Plasticity: The ability of the brain and other systems to change and adapt throughout life.

    Research Methods

    • Observations: Observing and recording behaviors, naturally or in a lab.
    • Experimental vs. Control Groups: One group receives the treatment, the other does not; used to test cause-and-effect relationships.
    • Survey Method: Using questionnaires or interviews to gather information.
    • Cross-Sectional Research: Comparing groups of different ages at the same time.
    • Longitudinal Research: Studying the same group of individuals over time.
    • Cross-Sequential Research: Combines cross-sectional and longitudinal designs, following multiple groups of different ages over time.
    • Correlational Research: Measures two or more variables to see if they are related, but does not prove cause-and-effect.
    • Quantitative Research: Uses numerical data and statistical analysis.
    • Qualitative Research: Uses descriptive data, interviews, and observations to provide a deeper understanding.

    Ethics in Development Research

    • IRB (Institutional Review Board): A committee that reviews and approves research involving human subjects to ensure ethical standards are met.
    • Ethical Concerns: Protecting participants from harm, privacy, confidentiality, informed consent, and the right to withdraw from the study.

    Theoretical Perspectives In Development

    • Functions of Theories:
      • 1. Description: Describes and organizes what we know.
      • 2. Explanation: Attempts to explain why development occurs as it does.
      • 3. Prediction: Predicts future developmental outcomes.

    Grand Theories

    • Psychoanalytic Theories:
      • Freud: Emphasized unconscious motives and early childhood experiences.
      • Erikson: Expanded Freud's ideas, focusing on social and cultural influences throughout life.
    • Behaviorism and Social Learning Theories:
      • Skinner: Focused on how behavior is learned through reinforcement and punishment.
      • Bandura: Emphasized the importance of observational learning and modeling.
    • Cognitive Theories:
      • Piaget: Focused on how children's thinking develops through stages.
      • Vygotsky: Emphasized the role of social interaction and culture in cognitive development.
      • Information Processing: Examines how information is processed and stored in the brain.

    Neuroscience and Developmental Theories

    • Neuroscience has allowed us to understand the brain and its development in ways that were previously impossible. This has led to new insights into how the brain contributes to learning, memory, language, and emotions.

    Newer Theories

    • Goals:

      • 1. Multicultural Perspective: Recognizing the impact of culture and diversity.
      • 2. Multidisciplinary Approach: Integrating insights from various disciplines.
      • 3. Universal Principles: Seeking to understand the commonalities in human development across cultures.

    • Sociocultural Theories: Emphasize the influence of social and cultural contexts on development.

    • Evolutionary Theory: Focuses on how natural selection has shaped human development.

    Criticisms of Theories

    • Each theory faces criticisms for its limitations and strengths.

    Eclectic Approach

    • It is common for developmentalists to adopt an eclectic approach, drawing from various theories to provide a more comprehensive understanding of development.
    • Knowing multiple theories allows developmentalists to see the multifaceted nature of human behavior.

    Genetics and Prenatal Development

    • Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes and around 20,000 genes.
    • Allele: A variation of a gene.
    • Microbiome: The trillions of bacteria that live in our gut and influence our health and development.

    Uniqueness of the Zygote

    • Each zygote is unique due to the combination of genetic material from the mother and father.
    • Sex of the baby is determined by the father: The father's sperm carries either an X or a Y chromosome, which will pair with the mother's X chromosome.
      • XX = Female
      • XY = Male

    Stem Cells

    • Stem cells: Cells that have the potential to develop into any type of cell in the body.

    In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)

    • IVF: The fertilization of an egg by sperm in a laboratory setting.
    • Traditional Pregnancy: Fertilization occurs naturally through sexual intercourse.

    CRISPR Technology

    • CRISPR: A gene-editing tool that allows scientists to make precise changes to DNA.
    • Illegal in human embryos: Raises ethical concerns about designer babies and potential genetic alterations that could be passed down.

    Monozygotic and Dizygotic Twins

    • Monozygotic (Identical) Twins: Develop from a single fertilized egg that splits, sharing the same genetic makeup.
    • Dizygotic (Fraternal) Twins: Develop from two separate eggs fertilized by two different sperm; genetically similar to siblings.

    Inheritance Patterns

    • Additive Heredity: Genes contribute additively to a trait.
    • Dominant-Recessive Inheritance: Only one gene in a pair influences a trait.

    Heritability

    • Heritability: A statistical estimate of the extent to which variation in a trait within a population can be attributed to genetic differences.

    Down Syndrome

    • Down Syndrome: A chromosomal disorder caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21, leading to intellectual and developmental disabilities.

    Recessive Conditions

    • Recessive Conditions: Require two copies of the recessive gene for the condition to be expressed.
      • Sickle-Cell Disease: Common in parts of Africa as it provides resistance to malaria.

    Genetic Counselors

    • Genetic Counselors: Health professionals who provide information and counseling regarding genetic risks and testing.
    • Ethical Mandates: Confidentiality, informed consent, non-directive counseling, and respecting individual choices.

    Prenatal Development (3 Stages)

    • 1. Germinal Stage (Weeks 1-2): Starts with the formation of a zygote that quickly divides into multiple cells and implants in the uterine wall.
    • 2. Embryonic Stage (Weeks 3-8): Major organs and body structure develop; most vulnerable stage to teratogens.
    • 3. Fetal Stage (Week 9 to Birth): Continued growth and development of organs and systems; fetus grows larger, more complex, and develops brain and sensory systems.

    Parts of the Embryo that Form First

    • The neural tube: The most critical stage, as it will develop into the central nervous system.

    Last Three Months of Pregnancy

    • Rapid brain growth, development of lungs, digestive system, senses, and immune system.

    Apgar Scale

    • Apgar: Assesses a newborn's health at 1 and 5 minutes after birth.
    • Measures: Appearance, Pulse, Grimace (reflexes), Activity, and Respiration.
    • Score: Higher scores indicate better health.

    Premature Babies

    • Premature: Born before 37 weeks gestation.
      • Low Birthweight: Below 5 pounds, 8 ounces.
      • Very Low Birthweight: Below 3 pounds, 5 ounces.
      • Extremely Low Birthweight: Below 2 pounds, 3 ounces.

    Teratogens

    • Teratogen: Any agent that causes a birth defect.
    • Behavioral Teratogen: Agent that can affect the brain and lead to learning and behavioral problems.

    Stages of Birth

    • 1. Labor: Uterine contractions dilate the cervix to allow the baby to pass through.
    • 2. Delivery: The baby is pushed through the birth canal.
    • 3. Expulsion of the Placenta: The placenta detaches from the uterine wall and is expelled.

    Newborn Social Interaction

    • Newborns are biologically programmed to respond to social stimuli.
    • Cry: A signal of need.
    • Smiling: A response to positive social interaction.

    Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale

    • Brazelton: A comprehensive assessment of a newborn's neurological and behavioral development.
    • Measures: Reflexes, motor behavior, state regulation, and social interactions, providing insights into a baby's strengths and areas for support.

    Newborn Reflexes

    • Important for survival and development:
      • Sucking Reflex: Promotes nourishment.
      • Rooting Reflex: Helps the baby find the nipple.
      • Moro Reflex: A startle response.

    Parent-Infant Bond

    • Formed through close contact and interaction.
    • Oxytocin plays a role: A hormone released during birth, bonding, and breastfeeding, promoting feelings of love and attachment.

    Other Newborn Issues

    • Maternal Depression: Can negatively impact a baby's development.
    • Fathers: Crucial role in a baby's well-being and development.
    • Breastfeeding: Provides numerous health benefits for both mother and baby.
    • Kangaroo Care: Skin-to-skin contact with the baby, promoting bonding and regulating a premature baby's temperature and heart rate.

    Infant Growth and Development

    • Rapid growth in the first year: Brain and body grow rapidly.
    • Brain Development: Brain size triples in the first three years; neurons connect and form circuits.
    • Pruning: Unused brain connections are eliminated, increasing efficiency and potential.
    • Experience-Expectant Growth: The brain depends on specific experiences for normal development, such as language exposure.
    • Experience-Dependent Growth: The brain adapts in response to unique individual experiences.

    Infant Sensory Abilities

    • Sight: Limited at birth, develops rapidly in the first few months.
    • Hearing: Well-developed at birth, allows newborns to recognize their parent's voice.
    • Taste: Preferences for sweet tastes exist at birth.
    • Motor Skills: Gross motor skills (reaching, grasping, crawling) and fine motor skills (using hands to manipulate small objects) develop rapidly in the first year.

    Immunization Rates

    • Doctors and health professionals are concerned about declining immunization rates in the US.
    • Vaccines are important to protect children from preventable diseases.

    Breastfeeding Importance

    • Recommended for at least one year: Provides crucial nutrients, antibodies, and protection against illness.

    Malnutrition

    • Malnutrition: Inadequate nutrition can lead to physical and cognitive delays, stunting, and increased susceptibility to illness.

    Infant Emotions

    • Early Emotions: Happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, and fear appear in the first few months.
    • First Year: Simple emotions.
    • Second Year: Emotions become more complex, including self-conscious emotions like embarrassment, pride, and shame.

    Anger and Sadness Triggers

    • Infants get angry when their needs are blocked.
    • Sadness is often triggered by separation from a caregiver or when a caregiver is unresponsive.

    1-Year-Old Fears

    • Typical Fears: Fear of strangers, loud noises, and sudden changes.

    Temperament

    • Temperament: A person's innate behavioral style, characterized by activity level, intensity, and sensitivity to new situations.
    • Enduring Traits: Some temperament traits endure, while others may change with development.
    • Contextual Influence: The environment and experiences can influence the expression of temperament.

    Synchrony

    • Synchrony: A harmonious interaction between a caregiver and infant, characterized by mutual attention and responsiveness.
    • Importance for Emotional Development: Contributes to secure attachment and positive emotional development.

    Attachment (Proximity-Seeking and Contact-Maintaining)

    • Proximity-Seeking: Approaching and staying near a caregiver for comfort and safety.
    • Contact-Maintaining: Holding onto or being physically close to a caregiver.

    Attachment Types

    • Secure Attachment: Trusted and secure relationship with caregiver; infant uses caregiver as a safe base for exploration.
    • Insecure-Avoidant Attachment: Infant avoids caregiver, shows little distress upon separation.
    • Insecure-Ambivalent Attachment: Infant is anxious and upset when caregiver leaves, yet not comforted upon return.
    • Insecure-Disorganized Attachment: Infant exhibits confused and contradictory behaviors, reflecting insecure and anxious attachment.

    Assessing Attachment using the Ainsworth Strange Situation

    • The Ainsworth Strange Situation is a structured observation used to assess the quality of attachment between a caregiver and infant.
    • Stages: The infant experiences brief separations and reunions with the caregiver in an unfamiliar setting.
    • Observations: The infant's behaviors, such as exploration, distress, and reunion responses, are observed.

    Attachment Across Development

    • The influence of attachment relationships extends beyond infancy and impacts social, emotional, and cognitive development.
    • Secure attachment in infancy is linked to later social competence, emotional regulation, and resilience.

    Social Referencing

    • Social Referencing: Looking to a caregiver for cues about how to respond to an unfamiliar or uncertain situation.
    • Important for Toddlers: Helps toddlers learn to interpret and regulate emotions, as well as make decisions.

    Theoretical Basis of Attachment

    • Erikson's Trust vs Mistrust: Early experiences with caregivers shape a child's sense of trust and security in the world.
    • Evolutionary Theories: Emphasize the biological basis of attachment, highlighting the importance of caregiving for survival and development.
    • They all agree: Parental care is essential for a child's well-being, emotional security, and development.

    Physical Growth in Early Childhood

    • Height and Weight: Children grow slower, but steadily between ages 2 and 6; lose their baby fat and become leaner.

    Child Obesity

    • Risk Factors: Overfeeding, lack of physical activity, genetics, poverty, and family feeding patterns.
    • Consequences: Medical problems, social stigma, lower self-esteem, and emotional difficulties.

    Brain Development in Early Childhood

    • Brain Growth: Between ages 2 and 6, the brain continues to grow and develop, but at a slower pace than in infancy.
    • Myelination: The process of coating nerve fibers with myelin, a fatty substance that speeds up neural transmission.
    • Importance for thinking and motor skills: Myelination contributes to improvements in cognitive abilities and motor skills.

    Motor Skills

    • Factors:
      • 1. Brain Maturation: The brain's development enables more coordinated movements.
      • 2. Practice: Regular practice helps children improve their motor skills.
      • 3. Motivation: Children are more likely to practice motor skills they find enjoyable.

    Childhood Injury

    • Rates of injury: High during early childhood as children are more active, curious, and less cautious.
    • Risk Factors: Motor vehicle accidents, falls, burns, poisonings, and drowning.

    Childhood Maltreatment

    • Types: Physical abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, and emotional abuse.
    • Difficult to measure: Many cases go unreported.
    • Long-Term Consequences: Emotional, behavioral, and social problems, increased risk of mental health disorders and substance abuse.

    Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

    • Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years): Infants learn through their senses and motor actions.
    • Preoperational Stage (2-7 Years): Young children develop symbolic thinking, but struggle with logical reasoning.

    Information Processing Theories

    • Focus on how children process and store information.
    • Working Memory: A mental workspace for holding and manipulating information.

    Criticism of Piaget's Theory

    • Piaget underestimated the abilities of young children.
    • Children may be able to develop cognitive skills earlier than Piaget suggested, particularly with guidance and support.

    Language Development

    • Fast-Mapping: The ability to learn new words quickly and easily.
    • Vocabulary Growth: Children's vocabulary expands rapidly during early childhood, especially from ages 2 to 3.
    • Grammar: Language skills become more complex, with a better understanding of grammar and syntax.

    Vygotsky's Social Interaction Theory

    • Social interaction: Key to cognitive development.
    • Zone of Proximal Development: The gap between what a child can do independently and what they can do with assistance.
    • Scaffolding: Providing temporary support to help children learn new skills.

    Bilingualism

    • Advantages: Improved cognitive flexibility, language skills, and academic achievement.

    Preschool Education

    • Goals: To prepare children for kindergarten and to promote social, emotional, and cognitive development.
    • Head Start: An early intervention program for disadvantaged children, providing education, healthcare, and social services.

    Preschool Effects

    • Benefits: Early preschool attendance, particularly for children from low-income families, is linked to improved academic and social outcomes.

    Emotional Development

    • Emotional Regulation: The ability to manage and control emotions.
    • Effortful Control: The ability to inhibit impulses, focus attention, and delay gratification.

    Attachment and Parenting in Early Childhood

    • Attachment: The secure attachment established in infancy continues to play a role in emotional and social development.
    • Parents' Roles: Provide love, support, guidance, and discipline.

    Parenting Styles

    • Authoritarian Parenting: High demands, low responsiveness.

    • Authoritative Parenting: High demands, high responsiveness.

    • Permissive Parenting: Low demands, high responsiveness.

    • Neglectful Parenting: Low demands, low responsiveness.

    • Most Successful Children: Authoritative parenting, characterized by warmth, clear expectations, and consistent discipline, fosters children's independence, self-esteem, and social skills.

    Cultural Influence on Parenting

    • Parenting styles vary across cultures.

    Corporal Punishment

    • Effects: Can be harmful to children, and is often associated with aggression and behavior problems.

    Induction

    • Induction: A form of discipline that involves explaining the consequences of behavior and why it was wrong.
    • Benefits: Promotes empathy, moral reasoning, and self-regulation.

    Screen Time

    • Excessive screen time can be detrimental to children's development.

    Play

    • Crucial for social, emotional, and cognitive development.
    • Empathy: Understanding and sharing the feelings of others.
    • Antipathy: Dislike or aversion towards others.
    • Prosocial Behavior: Helping, sharing, and caring for others.

    Health in Middle Childhood

    • Healthy Habits: Can have a lasting impact on adult health.

    Obesity in Middle Childhood

    • Risks: Cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, sleep apnea, and low self-esteem.

    Traditional IQ Tests

    • Measure cognitive abilities, including verbal comprehension, reasoning, and memory.

    Flynn Effect

    • A gradual increase in average IQ scores over time, possibly due to better nutrition, education, and technology.

    Brain Scans and Intelligence Tests

    • Brain scans may provide valuable insights into brain function but cannot replace traditional intelligence tests.

    Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage (Ages 7-11)

    • Children develop logical reasoning, but struggle with abstract concepts.

    Language, Memory, and Schools in Middle Childhood

    • Language skills become more complex, vocabulary expands, and children master grammar and syntax.
    • Working Memory: Improves, allowing children to hold more information and manipulate it mentally.
    • Schools: Play a crucial role in cognitive development, providing opportunities for learning and social interaction.

    Social Comparison

    • Powerful during middle childhood: Children compare themselves to others, particularly peers, to understand their own abilities and social standing.

    Resilience

    • Factors Contributing to Resilience: Strong social support, positive self-esteem, and coping skills.

    Family and Siblings

    • Family and sibling relationships continue to play a significant role in social and emotional development.

    Developmental Science

    • Studies: Human development from conception to death.
    • Scientific Method:
      • Observation: Gather information, form hypothesis
      • Hypothesis: Testable prediction based on observations
      • Experiment: Test hypothesis with a controlled group
      • Analyze: Interpret data to support or refute hypothesis
      • Disseminate: Share findings through publication and presentation

    Nature vs. Nurture

    • Nature: Inherited traits, biological predisposition
    • Nurture: Environmental influences, experiences, relationships
    • Current View: Both nature and nurture interact and shape development throughout life

    Genetics and Epigenetics

    • Genetics: Study of genes, their inheritance, and how they influence traits
    • Epigenetics: Study of how environmental factors can switch genes on or off, influencing gene expression without changing DNA sequence
    • Differential Susceptibility: Individuals have different sensitivities to environmental influences, depending on their genes

    Continuity and Discontinuity in Development

    • Continuity: Gradual, ongoing growth and development
    • Discontinuity: Distinct stages with abrupt changes

    Periods

    • Critical Period: Specific time frame where certain experiences are crucial for normal development. If they are missed, development might be permanently impaired.
    • Sensitive Period: Optimal time for learning, but learning can still occur later.

    Social Contexts

    • Family, culture, community, socioeconomic status

    Cohort Differences

    • Cohort: Group of individuals born around the same time, sharing similar historical and cultural influences
    • Age Group: People within a similar age range

    Plasticity in Development

    • Human development is flexible and adaptable, influenced by experiences throughout life. Learning and changes are possible at all ages

    Scientific Methods

    • Observations: Observing behaviors in natural settings
      • Advantages: Provides realistic, in-depth insights
      • Disadvantages: Difficult to control variables, risk of observer bias
    • Experimental Group vs. Control Group Studies:
      • Advantages: Control variables, establish cause-and-effect relationships.
      • Disadvantages: Ethical concerns, artificial settings can affect behavior
    • Survey Method: Gathering data through questionnaires, interviews
      • Advantages: Efficient for collecting large amounts of data from many people
      • Disadvantages: Bias in responses, social desirability bias
    • Cross-Sectional Research: Comparing groups of people of different ages at one point in time
      • Advantages: Quick and efficient
      • Disadvantages: Doesn't track individual development, cohort effects may influence results
    • Longitudinal Research: Studying the same group of individuals over a long period
      • Advantages: Tracks individual development, establishes temporal order
      • Disadvantages: Time-consuming, costly, participant attrition (drop-out)
    • Cross-Sequential Research: Combining cross-sectional and longitudinal research, using multiple groups of different ages followed over time
      • Advantages: Reduces cohort effects, tracks individual development
      • Disadvantages: More complex to design and analyze
    • Correlational Research: Examining the relationship between variables without manipulating them
      • Advantages: Identifies associations
      • Disadvantages: Cannot establish cause and effect
    • Quantitative Research: Uses numbers and statistical analysis to measure and analyze data
    • Qualitative Research: Focuses on understanding experiences, meanings, and perspectives. Uses observations, interviews, and textual analysis.

    IRB and Research Ethics

    • Institutional Review Board (IRB): Ethical review board that ensures research involving human participants is ethical and protects their rights
    • Ethical Issues:
      • Informed consent (participants must be informed about the study)
      • Confidentiality (protecting participant information)
      • Beneficence (minimizing potential risks and maximizing potential benefits)
      • Justice (ensuring fairness and equitable distribution of benefits and risks)
    • Challenges for Developmental Research:
      • Informed consent from children: Children need to understand the study and provide consent
      • Parental consent: Parents must give consent for children to participate
      • Vulnerability of children: Children are vulnerable and require special protections

    Theories of Development

    • Functions of Theories:
      • Description: Explain what we observe
      • Explanation: Provide reasons for phenomena
      • Prediction: Foresee future behavior
      • Application: Guide intervention and practice

    Grand Theories

    • Psychoanalytic Theories: Emphasis on unconscious drives and early childhood experiences shaping personality
      • Freud: Psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital)
      • Erikson: Psychosocial stages (trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, etc.)
    • Behaviorism and Social Learning Theories: Emphasis on learning through association and observation
      • Skinner: Operant conditioning (rewards and punishments)
      • Bandura: Social learning (observational learning, modeling)
    • Cognitive Theories: Emphasis on thinking, problem-solving, and mental processes
      • Piaget: Cognitive stages (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational)
      • Vygotsky: Sociocultural theory (role of culture and social interaction in learning)
    • Information Processing Theory: Focuses on how information is processed and stored in the mind
    • Critiques: Each theory has limitations and doesn't fully explain all aspects of development.

    Newer Theories

    • Multicultural, Multidisciplinary, Universal: These theories emphasize the interconnectedness of biology, culture, and environment.
    • Sociocultural Theories: Emphasis on the influence of culture and social interactions on development
    • Evolutionary Theory: Focuses on how natural selection shaped human behavior and development
    • Criticisms: Newer theories are still evolving and require further research.

    Why Eclectic Approach is Beneficial

    • Developmentalists often use insights from multiple theories, considering different perspectives to explain complex development.

    Genetics and Prenatal Development

    • Chromosomes: Humans have 23 pairs (46 total), half from each parent.
    • Genes: Segments of DNA that carry instructions for building and maintaining the body.
    • Allele: Specific version of a gene. Two alleles are present for each gene, one from each parent.
    • Microbiome: Trillions of microorganisms residing in the body, influencing health and development
    • Zygote Uniqueness: Each zygote is unique due to the blending of genetic material from the egg and sperm.
    • Sex Determination: Presence of Y chromosome determines male sex; absence of Y chromosome results in female sex.
    • Stem cells: Undifferentiated cells that can develop into any type of cell in the body.
    • In Vitro Fertilization (IVF): Fertilization of an egg by sperm outside the body, followed by implantation of the fertilized egg in the uterus.
    • Traditional Pregnancy: Natural fertilization within the woman's body.
    • CRISPR: Gene-editing technology that can alter DNA sequences, with ethical and safety concerns regarding its use on human embryos.
    • Monozygotic Twins: Identical twins, sharing the same DNA
    • Dizygotic Twins: Fraternal Twins, separate eggs fertilized by separate sperm, sharing about 50% of their DNA.
    • Additive Inheritance: Multiple genes contribute to a trait.
    • Dominant-Recessive Inheritance: One dominant allele masks the effect of a recessive allele.
    • Heritability: The extent to which a trait is genetically influenced

    Prenatal Development

    • Stages:
      • Germinal: First 14 days of pregnancy, characterized by rapid cell division and implantation
      • Embryonic: Weeks 3-8, characterized by organ formation and rapid growth
      • Fetal: Week 9-birth, characterized by continued growth and development of organs and systems.
    • Embryo Formation:
      • Neural tube: Forms first, giving rise to the brain and spinal cord
    • Last Three Months of Pregnancy:
      • Significant maturation of organs and systems
      • Gaining fat for insulation
      • Regular breathing and heart rate patterns
    • APGAR Score: Assessment of a newborn's health at 1 and 5 minutes after birth.
      • Measures: Appearance, Pulse, Grimace (reflex irritability), Activity (muscle tone), Respiration
      • Score: Higher score indicates better health.

    Birth and Newborn

    • Premature Baby: Born before 37 weeks of gestation
      • Low birthweight: Less than 5 1/2 pounds
      • Very low birthweight: Less than 3 1/4 pounds
      • Extremely low birthweight: Less than 2 pounds
    • Teratogen: Any substance or factor that can harm a developing embryo or fetus.
      • Behavioral Teratogens: Harmful substances or factors that can affect the brain development and behavioral patterns of a child.
    • Stages of Birth:
      • Labor: Contractions and dilation of the cervix.
      • Delivery: Pushing the baby out through the vagina.
      • Placenta: Expelling the placenta
    • Social Interaction: Newborns are capable of responding to social stimuli, such as faces and voices.
    • Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale: Assesses newborn reflexes, motor skills, and sensory capacities.

    Infant Development

    • Rapid Growth: Significant physical growth during the first year.
    • Brain Development:
      • Synaptogenesis: Formation of connections (synapses) between neurons.
      • Pruning: Elimination of unused synapses, strengthening remaining ones.
    • Experience-Expectant Growth: Brain development based on expected experiences in a typical environment.
    • Experience-Dependent Growth: Brain development driven by unique experiences, shaping the child's individual skills and abilities.
    • Sensory Development:
      • Sight: Sharpens dramatically in the first few months.
      • Hearing: Infants are more sensitive to higher frequencies.
      • Taste: Infants can distinguish sweet, sour, bitter, and salty tastes.
    • Motor Skills: Develop rapidly from reflexes to crawling, walking, and more.
    • Immunizations: Protect against diseases and are crucial for child health.
    • Breastfeeding: Recommended for at least one year, providing optimal nutrition and antibodies.
    • Malnutrition: Can impair physical and cognitive development, leading to various health problems.

    Emotional Development

    • Early Emotions: Infants show basic emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust).
    • First Year: More complex emotions emerge, such as embarrassment and pride.
    • Anger and Sadness: Triggered by frustration, pain, or loss.
    • Fears: Develop in the second year, such as fear of strangers, loud noises, and the dark.
    • Temperament: Inborn behavioral tendencies, such as activity level, emotionality, and self-regulation.
    • Temperament Enduring or Changing: Temperament is relatively stable but can be influenced by experiences and relationships.
    • Context and Temperament: Temperament influences how individuals react to different situations.
    • Synchrony: Mutually responsive interactions between caregivers and infants, crucial for emotional development and attachment.

    Attachment

    • Proximity Seeking and Contact Maintaining: Infants seek closeness and comfort from caregivers.
    • Types of Attachment:
      • Secure Attachment: Trusting and confident caregiver will be responsive to needs.
      • Insecure-Avoidant Attachment: Distant and unresponsive to caregiver, avoiding emotional connection.
      • Insecure-Resistant/Ambivalent Attachment: Anxious and clingy, distressed when separated and ambivalent when reunited.
      • Disorganized Attachment: Confused and inconsistent behavior, reflecting fear of the caregiver.
    • Ainsworth Strange Situation: Assesses attachment styles through a series of separations and reunions with the caregiver.
    • Attachment across Development: Secure attachment fosters positive social, emotional, and cognitive development, while other attachment patterns can lead to challenges in relationships.

    Social Referencing

    • Infants look to trusted adults for cues on how to respond to unfamiliar situations.

    Theories of Attachment

    • Erikson: Trust vs. Mistrust (first stage of psychosocial development). Early trust in caregivers is crucial for healthy development.
    • Evolutionary Theories: Attachment is evolutionary adaptive for survival because it provides safety and care for infants.

    Early Childhood

    • Growth: Slower but steady in height and weight between ages 2 and 6.
    • Obesity: Increasing concern due to overfeeding, sedentary lifestyles, and availability of unhealthy food.
    • Brain Development: Significant myelination (insulation of nerve fibers) during this period, enhancing thinking and motor skills.
    • Motor Skills: Develop rapidly, including balance, coordination, and fine motor skills.
    • Child Maltreatment: Includes neglect, physical, emotional, and sexual abuse. It is harmful to child development and can have long-term consequences.
    • Piaget's Preoperational Stage:
      • Sensorimotor stage: Infants learn through senses and motor actions.
      • Preoperational stage: Children develop language, imagination, and symbolic thinking, but struggle with logic and perspective-taking.
    • Information Processing Theories: Focus on how children's cognitive processes change, such as attention, memory, and problem-solving.
    • Object Permanence: Understanding that objects exist even when they are not visible.
    • Critiques of Piaget: Some aspects of his theory have been revised by research showing that children demonstrate greater cognitive abilities earlier than Piaget suggested.

    Language Development

    • Rapid expansion of vocabulary, grammar, and communication skills.
    • Egocentrism: Difficulty understanding perspectives other than their own.

    Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

    • Talking to Oneself: Serves as a way to plan and regulate behavior, a form of self-directed learning.
    • Bilingualism: Multiple benefits, including cognitive flexibility and increased language skills.

    Preschool Education

    • Head Start: Government-funded preschool program for disadvantaged children, providing early education and support services.

    Emotional Development

    • Emotion Regulation: Ability to control and manage emotional responses.
    • Effortful Control: Ability to inhibit impulsive behaviors and focus attention.

    Parenting Styles

    • Baumrind's Parenting Styles:
      • Authoritarian: High demands, low warmth, strict discipline.
      • Authoritative: High demands, high warmth, responsiveness, explanation of rules.
      • Permissive: Low demands, high warmth, often lenient and indulgent.
      • Neglectful: Low demands, low warmth, uninvolved and unresponsive.
    • Culture and Parenting: Parenting styles vary across cultures.

    Discipline

    • Corporal Punishment: Physical discipline, can be harmful and ineffective.
    • Induction: Explaining why a behavior is wrong and providing opportunities to make amends.

    Play

    • Empathy: Understanding and sharing the feelings of others.
    • Prosocial Behavior: Actions intended to help others.

    Middle Childhood

    • Health Habits: Influences adult health, such as healthy eating, exercise, and sleep habits.
    • Obesity: Increased risks for chronic diseases, such as diabetes, heart disease, and some cancers.
    • IQ Tests: Measure cognitive abilities, such as reasoning, problem-solving, and verbal fluency.
    • Flynn Effect: IQ scores have been steadily increasing over decades, possibly due to environmental factors such as improved education, nutrition, and technology.
    • Brain Scans: While providing valuable information, they don't replace traditional IQ tests.
    • Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage: Children gain the ability to think logically about concrete objects and events.
    • Social Comparison: Comparing oneself to others, leading to a greater sense of self-awareness.
    • Resilience: Ability to bounce back from adversity, influenced by protective factors, such as supportive relationships and positive coping skills.
    • Family and Siblings: Important influences on development during middle childhood.

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