Developmental Psychology Overview

Overview of Developmental Psychology

Developmental Psychology is the branch of psychology devoted to identifying and explaining the continuities and changes that individuals display over time.
It studies the stages of development from conception to death.

Four Goals of Developmental Science

Describe (Observe): carefully observing the behavior of people of different ages, cataloguing how people change over time.
Explain: determining why people develop as they typically do and why some people develop differently than others.
Predict: predicting from knowledge what people will think or feel in different situations.
Intervene: applying what has been learned to help people develop in positive directions.

Stages of Development

Prenatal Period (Conception to Birth)

Physical: Formation of basic body structures and organs; brain growth spurt; vulnerability to environmental influences.
Cognitive: Developing learning and remembering abilities; response to sensory stimuli.
Psychosocial: Response to mother's voice; develops preference for it; highly sensitive to environmental influence.

Infancy and Toddlerhood (Birth to Age 3)

Physical: Rapid growth; all senses and body systems operate; complex brain growth.
Cognitive: Present learning and remembering abilities; use of symbols.
Psychosocial: Attachment to parents; shift from dependence to autonomy; interest in other children increases.

Early Childhood (Ages 3-6)

Physical: Steady growth; more slender appearance; decreased appetite and sleep problems.
Cognitive: Slightly egocentric thinking; understanding other's perspective; logical yet concrete thinking.
Psychosocial: Egocentrism diminishes; logical thinking develops; increased memory and language skills.

Middle Childhood (Ages 6-11)

Physical: Growth slows; improved strength and athletic skills.
Cognitive: Logical yet concrete thinking; increased memory and language skills.
Psychosocial: More complexity in self-concept; affects self-esteem; gradual shift in control from parents to child.

Adolescence (Ages 11-20)

Physical: Rapid and profound physical changes; reproductive maturity.
Cognitive: Abstract thinking and scientific reasoning develop; immature thinking persists in some attitudes and behavior.
Psychosocial: Search for identity; generally good relationship with parents; peer group may exert positive or negative influence.

Emerging and Young Adulthood (Ages 20-40)

Physical: Physical condition peaks, then declines slightly.
Cognitive: More complex thought process and moral judgments.
Psychosocial: Relatively stable personality traits and styles; changes in personality influenced by life stages and events.

Middle Adulthood (Ages 40-65)

Physical: Slow deterioration of sensory skills, health, stamina, and strength.
Cognitive: Peak of mental abilities; expertise and practical problem-solving skills.
Psychosocial: Sense of identity develops continuously; stress from dual responsibilities; launching of children leaves an empty nest.

Late Adulthood (Ages 65 and Above)

Physical: General decline in health and physical abilities.
Cognitive: Most are mentally alert; cognitive deterioration occurs in some areas, but most find ways to compensate.
Psychosocial: Retirement; new options for the use of time; more flexible coping strategies with losses and changes.### Importance of Lifespan Development
Lifespan development examines the life span from conception to death, helping us understand ourselves and others at different stages of life.
It stimulates us to think about the influences that shaped us and motivates us to think about our future development.

Approaches in Human Development

Traditional approach: emphasizes extensive change from birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood, and decline in late old age.
Life span approach: emphasizes developmental change during adulthood as well as childhood.

Seven Principles of Lifespan Perspective

Lifelong: change occurs across the entire life span, and no period is more or less important than any other.
Multidimensional: physical, cognitive, and psychosocial dimensions are interconnected.
Multidirectional: gains in one area may be accompanied by losses in another.
Relative influences of biology and culture shift over the life span: culture can influence or compensate for an individual's biological shortcomings or deterioration.
Changing resource allocations: as we grow, we change or adjust our resources to meet our current needs.
Plasticity: the brain adapts to new learning, and neurons rewire to make things easier next time; however, it has limitations.
Influenced by the historical and cultural context: different experiences and cultural contexts influence development.

Contexts of Development

Family: characterized by diversity and provides important support.
Socioeconomic status: economic and social factors, including income, education, and occupation.
Culture: a society's total way of living, including customs, traditions, beliefs, values, language, and physical products.
Ethnicity and race: ethnicity refers to social groups based on shared cultural identity, language, traditions, and customs; race refers to social groups based on physical characteristics like skin color and physical features.

Classification of Age

Chronological age: since birth.
Biological age: in terms of quality of biological health.
Psychological age (mental): an individual's adaptive capacities compared to those of other individuals of the same chronological age.
Social age: based on social norms and expectations for people of a certain age group.

Lifespan and Life Expectancy

Lifespan: the length of time a species can exist under optimal conditions.
Life expectancy: the predicted number of years a person born in a particular time period can reasonably expect to live until.

Key Issues in Lifespan Development

Nature vs. nurture: are individuals a product of their genes or environment?
Continuity vs. discontinuity: is development gradual and cumulative or going through distinct stages?
Stability vs. change: is our development highly stable or do we change?

Revisiting Developmental Theories

Historical: preformationist view, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Arnold Gesell, Sigmund Freud.
Contemporary: Erik Erikson, Lawrence Kohlberg, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, BF Skinner, Albert Bandura, Urie Bronfenbrenner, Eclectic approach.

Research Concerning Lifespan Development

Scientific method: the assumption, rules, and procedures scientists use to conduct research.
Research design: the specific way a researcher collects, analyzes, and interprets data.
Developmental research: longitudinal, cross-sectional, and sequential research designs.
Ethics: no harm, informed consent, confidentiality, deception, and debriefing.

Symptoms of Pregnancy

Missed period
Tender, swollen breasts
Slight bleeding or cramping
Nausea with or without vomiting
Frequent urination
Fatigue
Mood swings
Constipation
Food aversions
Faintness and dizziness
Raised basal body temperature### Symptoms of Pregnancy
Women may experience cramping as the uterus enlarges
Nausea with or without vomiting is common, likely due to pregnancy hormones, and can start as early as 2 weeks after conception and last from 4 to 8 weeks
Frequent urination occurs during the first trimester due to the enlarging uterus exerting pressure on the bladder
Fatigue is caused by the heart pumping harder and faster to carry nutrients to the fetus, as well as the stepped-up production of hormones
Mood swings are triggered by the flood of hormones early in pregnancy, producing emotional highs and lows
Constipation is caused by the increase in progesterone, which slows digestion and leads to slow passage of food through the intestinal tract
Food aversions are common, especially during the first trimester, due to hormonal changes that alter food preferences and a heightened sense of smell that can trigger nausea
Faintness and dizziness can be triggered by blood vessel dilation, low blood pressure, and low blood sugar
Raised basal body temperature remains elevated when menstruation ceases

Conception and Characteristics of Prenatal Period

Conception occurs when one sperm fertilizes one ovum (egg), marking the beginning of human life
Dizygotic twins are formed when two different ova are fertilized by two different sperm cells, making them no more genetically alike than any other siblings
Monozygotic twins are formed when a single zygote divides after fertilization, making them genetically similar

Characteristics of Prenatal

Hereditary endowment refers to the genes inherited from parents, affecting physical and physiological characteristics
Favourable conditions are necessary for growth and development, including the sex of the child, which is determined by its chromosome make-up at conception
Greater growth and development occur during the fetal stage, which begins at 9 weeks, with significant milestones reached at 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, and 36 weeks
Exposure to hazards, both physical and psychological, can affect development
Formation of significant attitudes from caretakers is important for the child's development

Periods of Prenatal Development

Germinal period: the first two weeks after conception, during which a new cell is formed and the blastocyst attaches to the wall of the uterus
Embryonic period: from 3-8 weeks after conception, during which differentiation intensifies and the mass of cells becomes an embryo
Fetal period: from 9 weeks after conception to birth, during which growth and development accelerate

Embryonic Period

The embryo develops into three layers: endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm
Endoderm forms the digestive system, respiratory system, and other organs
Mesoderm forms the circulatory system, bones and muscles, excretory system, and reproductive system
Ectoderm forms the nervous system, brain, sensory receptors, skin, and hair
Events of the embryonic period include the development of the embryo, elongation, and the emergence of layers and organs

Infancy

Infancy is the period of the newborn, characterized by radical adjustments to life outside the uterus
It is the shortest and most hazardous of all developmental periods
Characteristics of infancy include a time for major adjustments, a plateau of development, and a preview of later development
Adjustment to postnatal patterns can be influenced by medical, physiological, and psychological criteria