Criminal Psychology: Early History Overview

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Questions and Answers

What is a suggested technique to prepare for an effective interrogation?

Using multiple interrogators in the same room

Using bright colors to stimulate the suspect

Holding the evidence folder at the start (correct)

Allowing suspects to bring personal items

What are maximization techniques primarily designed to do?

Provide a sense of false security to the suspect

Facilitate open and honest communication

Encourage suspects to confess through comfort

Intimidate suspects and provoke fear (correct)

Which of the following is NOT a problem associated with the Reid model?

False confessions

Effective voice modulation techniques (correct)

Comprehension of legal rights

Investigator bias

What was a serious outcome highlighted by the case of Eric Morgan regarding interrogation practices?

Witnesses provided false confessions under pressure Signup and view all the answers

What is a common outcome when more Reid techniques are utilized in interrogations?

Greater proportion of confessions is obtained Signup and view all the answers

What standard do psychologists typically use to accept hypotheses?

Statistical significance Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT one of the Daubert criteria for admissibility in court?

Based on public opinion Signup and view all the answers

What is required for scientific evidence to be deemed reliable according to the established criteria?

It has been peer reviewed Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes the criteria used by lawyers from those used by psychologists in the courtroom?

Lawyers have greater latitude in presenting evidence. Signup and view all the answers

What specific characteristic must research adhere to in order to meet the Daubert criteria?

It must be testable Signup and view all the answers

According to the Frye standard, what is required for novel scientific evidence to be admissible in court?

It must be generally accepted in the scientific community Signup and view all the answers

What is one criticism of the Frye standard that led to the development of the Daubert criteria?

It was too vague in its definition of general acceptance. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following elements is NOT necessary for research to be considered valid under the Daubert criteria?

General applicability to court cases Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome of Richard Ivens' case after Musternberg's analysis of the interrogation records?

Ivens was executed despite being innocent. Signup and view all the answers

In which landmark case was the first expert testimony by a psychologist permitted?

State v Driver Signup and view all the answers

What did the Supreme Court rule in the Brown v Board of Education case?

Segregated schools were unconstitutional. Signup and view all the answers

What was the main argument in Jenkins v United States regarding psychologists?

Some psychologists are qualified for expert testimony. Signup and view all the answers

What is a narrow definition of forensic psychology?

Includes treating convicts and consultations. Signup and view all the answers

What psychological study was influential in the Brown v Board of Education case?

Clark and Clark Doll Study Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary focus of Musternberg's book 'On the Witness Stand'?

Psychology's relevance to the legal system. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of psychology does the broad definition of forensic psychology examine?

Human behavior in relation to the legal system. Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary reason for the backlash against Musternberg's advocacy for psychology in the legal system?

Perceived challenges to legal expertise. Signup and view all the answers

What did the court state in the ruling of State v Driver about psychological and medical tests?

They require further validation. Signup and view all the answers

What was the main focus of Cattell's early experiments in criminal psychology?

The psychology of eyewitness testimony Signup and view all the answers

Which type of questions resulted in the most accurate recollections from children in Binet's studies?

Free recall questions Signup and view all the answers

What finding did Stern conclude regarding emotional arousal during eyewitness testimony?

It negatively impacts the accuracy of testimony Signup and view all the answers

What term did Albert Von Schrenck Notzing use to describe the confusion between actual memories and media narratives?

Retroactive memory falsification Signup and view all the answers

Which study demonstrated that children could be led to recall a non-existent person?

Varendonck's study of children's testimonies Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following did Cattell primarily assess through his experiments?

The confidence level of eyewitnesses Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant influence noted by Albert Von Schrenck Notzing on memory due to media coverage?

Confusion of memories with media narratives Signup and view all the answers

Which type of questioning led to the least accurate responses in Binet's experiments?

Highly suggestive questions Signup and view all the answers

What was a notable effect observed by Stern regarding exciting events in eyewitness testimony?

Recall became increasingly inaccurate Signup and view all the answers

What methodological approach did Stern use in his eyewitness studies?

Experiments with staged events Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of the polygrapher's 9 step model of interrogation?

To break down the suspect's resistance to confessing Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during Part 1 of the 3 part process in the interrogation model?

Evidence related to the crime is gathered and witnesses are interviewed Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes an action taken by an interrogator during the initial confrontation with a suspect?

Moving around the room to invade the suspect's personal space Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of developing psychological themes during the interrogation?

To rationalize or excuse the suspect's actions Signup and view all the answers

How does the interrogator assess the suspect's response to the developed themes?

By observing if the suspect's body language changes positively Signup and view all the answers

Why might an interrogator imply that evidence exists against a suspect even if it does not?

To create doubts in the suspect's perception of reality Signup and view all the answers

What are deception indicators that the interrogator looks for during the interrogation?

Fidgeting, licking lips, and grooming behaviors Signup and view all the answers

What does the accusatorial interrogation stage focus on if the suspect is perceived to be guilty?

Securing a confession from the suspect Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Early History in Criminal Psychology

Cattle (1895) conducted one of the first experiments on the psychology of eyewitness testimony, asking 56 university students to recall events from their daily life. Results revealed that most students were inaccurate and lacked confidence in their recollections, highlighting the potential for these findings in aiding "courts of justice."
Binet (1900) explored the suggestibility of children's testimony. Through staged experiments, he demonstrated that children are highly influenced by suggestive questioning. Free recall questions produced the most accurate answers, while misleading questions led to the least accurate. These findings underscore children's susceptibility to influence and their limitations as accurate eyewitnesses.
Stern (1910) conducted "reality experiments" on witness suggestibility. He exposed participants to staged events and found that recall was often inaccurate, particularly during emotionally arousing parts. This led to the conclusion that emotional arousal can negatively impact the accuracy of testimony.

Early Cases in Europe

Albert Von Schrenck-Notzing (1896) was likely the first expert witness to address the effects of pretrial publicity on memory in court. He testified in a case involving multiple sexual murderers that received extensive media coverage. He argued that pretrial press coverage could influence witness testimony through "retroactive memory falsification," confusing actual memories with media portrayals, and supported his claims with lab research.
Varendonck (1911) served as an expert witness in a murder case involving a young girl. In his own experiments, he demonstrated that children were easily led by suggestive questioning to recall details about a non-existent person, emphasizing the vulnerability of their testimonies. He highlighted the potential for inaccuracies in testimony, particularly regarding children.

The Contributions of Münsterberg

Hugo Münsterberg was a strong advocate for psychology's application in the legal system, believing it could be a valuable asset. He argued that psychology could significantly contribute to issues such as eyewitness testimony, hypnotism, and crime prevention in his book "On the Witness Stand." While his work and opinions were initially met with resistance and backlash, notably in his involvement in high-profile cases like those of Richard Ivens and Harry Orchard.

Progress Towards Forensic Psychology

The first juvenile delinquents clinic was established in 1909, marking a significant step in the development of forensic psychology.
The first laboratories for pretrial assessments were developed in 1916, further establishing a foundation for utilizing psychological assessments within the legal system.
Psychological testing for law enforcement selection purposes began in 1917, recognizing the importance of psychological considerations within law enforcement.

Landmark US Cases

State v Driver (1921) was the first case where expert testimony from a psychologist was permitted, but only a small portion of the testimony was allowed. The case involved a rape attempt and focused on lie detection, and the court ultimately rejected the psychologist’s testimony, stating that the reliability of psychological and medical tests for lie detection was uncertain.
Brown v Board of Education was a landmark Supreme Court case focusing on the constitutionality of school segregation. The case relied on social science research, particularly Kenneth and Mamie Clark's doll study, which demonstrated the negative impact of racial discrimination on children's self-perception. The court cited these psychological findings in its decision to overturn school segregation laws.
Jenkins v United States (1962) further solidified the role of psychologists in providing admissible opinions regarding a defendant's mental health. Jenkins, facing charges of breaking and entering, assault, and attempted rape, pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity, supported by three psychologists who diagnosed him with schizophrenia. The court initially dismissed the psychologists' testimony due to their lack of official qualification. The APA intervened and the court reversed the conviction and ordered a new trial, recognizing that some psychologists possess the expertise to offer opinions about mental disorders.

Defining Forensic Psychology: Narrow vs. Broad

Narrow definition focuses on clinical assessments, consultations with legal professionals (lawyers and judges), and treatment of convicted individuals. This approach emphasizes objective examination of factual evidence.
Broad definition examines human behavior within the context of the legal system. It encompasses application and research within various fields of psychology, including social, cognitive, personality, organizational, and developmental psychology. This broader perspective allows for a more subjective examination of experiences.

Psychology and the Law: A Complex Relationship

Psychology and the law are often seen as separate entities, with psychology focused on understanding the operation of the legal system. This distinction highlights the unique perspectives and methodologies utilized in both fields.
Differences in crucial elements can lead to challenges in integrating psychological findings into legal proceedings. These differences include:
- Criteria for accepting hypotheses: Psychology relies on conservative criteria like statistical significance, while the law uses practical standards like "beyond a reasonable doubt."
- Standards for explanation and decision-making: Psychologists explore various explanations, while lawyers prefer coherent explanations with strong legal precedent.
- Latitude in courtroom behavior: Psychologists are restricted by rules of evidence, while lawyers have more freedom in presenting evidence and witnesses within legal boundaries.

Admissibility Criteria: Ensuring the Validity of Evidence

Frye v United States (1923) established the "general acceptance test" for admissibility of novel scientific evidence. To be admissible, evidence must be based on procedures accepted within the scientific community.
Daubert v Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals Inc. (1993) led to the development of the "Daubert criteria" for admissibility, addressing shortcomings in the Frye test. The Daubert criteria require research to be:
- Peer reviewed
- Testable and falsifiable through experimentation
- Adhere to professional standards
Reid Technique
- Developed by John Reid in the 1950s. It is a highly structured and controversial method for interrogating suspects. It is used to extract confessions from suspects.
- Three-part process. The first part aims to gather information about the crime, including interviews with witnesses and victims. The second part involves a non-accusatory interview to assess the suspect’s truthfulness. The third part is an accusatory interrogation aimed at securing a confession.
- Consists of nine specific steps with a goal of exploiting the suspect’s anxiety associated with deception and making the decision to confess the best option.
Problems with the Reid Technique :
- It is criticized for its potential to result in false confessions because:
  - Deception detection: The technique does not have a high degree of reliability in accurately detecting deception.
  - Comprehension of legal rights: Some techniques can influence the suspect's understanding of their legal right to remain silent.
  - Investigator bias: Interrogator bias, particularly when the interrogator believes the suspect is guilty, can lead to a higher likelihood of false confessions.
  - Coercive and suggestive tactics: The model can involve practices that put pressure on individuals to confess even if they are innocent, which may lead to false confessions.
- The Eric Morgan Case: Illustrates the dangers of the Reid Technique with a false confession obtained through coercion and manipulation.

Key Figures and Concepts

Cattle (1895) - Early experiments on eyewitness testimony
Binet (1900) - Suggestibility of children's testimony
Stern (1910) - "Reality experiments" and emotional arousal's impact on testimony
Albert Von Schrenck-Notzing (1896) - First expert witness on pretrial publicity and memory
Varendonck (1911) - Suggestibility of children's testimony & inaccuracies in testimony
Hugo Münsterberg - Advocacy for Psychology in the legal system
State v. Driver (1921) - First case admitting psychologist testimony
Brown v. Board of Education (1954) - Use of psychological research in Supreme Court decision
Jenkins v. United States (1962) - Strengthening the role of psychologists as mental health experts
Reid Technique - Interrogation technique seeking confession from suspects
Frye General Acceptance Test - Criteria for admissibility of scientific evidence
Daubert Criteria - More rigorous criteria for admissibility of scientific evidence

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Description

Explore the foundational experiments in criminal psychology that focused on eyewitness testimony and suggestibility. From Cattle's early studies on recall accuracy to Binet's work on children's suggestibility, this quiz covers key experiments that shaped our understanding of psychological influences in legal contexts.