Columbian Exchange and the Enlightenment

• The following are terms and potential written questions for Examination 1.

Terms

• Columbian Exchange: The widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas between the Americas, West Africa, and the Old World in the 15th and 16th centuries.
• Enlightenment: An intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century.
• Thomas Paine: An English-American political activist, philosopher, political theorist, and revolutionary.
• John Locke: An English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers and commonly known as the "Father of Liberalism".
• Adam Smith: A Scottish economist and philosopher as well as a key figure during the Scottish Enlightenment era.
• Mary Wollstonecraft: An English writer, philosopher, and advocate of women's rights.
• Popular Sovereignty: The principle that the authority of a state and its government are created and sustained by the consent of its people, through their elected representatives, who are the source of all political power.
• Laissez-faire: A policy or attitude of letting things take their own course, without interfering.
• Social contract: An implicit agreement among the members of a society to cooperate for social benefits.
• Shays' Rebellion: An armed uprising in Western Massachusetts and Worcester in 1786 and 1787.
• Anti-Federalists: A group of people in the late 1780's who opposed the creation of a stronger U.S. federal government and which later opposed the ratification of the 1787 Constitution.
• Gabriel Prosser: An enslaved African-American blacksmith who planned a large slave rebellion in the Richmond, Virginia area in the summer of 1800.
• Mercantilism: The economic doctrine that governments should actively regulate trade, usually by curtailing imports and promoting exports.
• The Three Estates: The divisions of European society in the Middle Ages, which included the clergy, nobles and commoners.
• "Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen": A fundamental document of the French Revolution that granted civil rights to some commoners.
• Abbé Sieyès: A French Roman Catholic clergyman and political writer; one of the chief theorists of the French Revolution
• National Assembly: A revolutionary assembly formed by the representatives of the Third Estate (the common people) of France.
• Bastille: A fortress in Paris, used as a prison, that was taken by rioters on July 14, 1789, marking the start of the French Revolution
• Olympe de Gouges: A French playwright and political activist whose writings on women's rights and abolitionism reached a large audience in various countries.
• Jacobins: The most radical and ruthless of the political groups formed in wake of the French Revolution, and in association with Robespierre they instituted the Terror of 1793–4
• Reign of Terror: A period of the French Revolution (1793-94) characterized by extreme measures taken against suspected enemies of the revolution.
• Maximilien Robespierre: A French lawyer and politician, one of the best-known and most influential figures of the French Revolution.
• Napoleon Bonaparte: A French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the Revolutionary Wars.
• Congress of Vienna: A conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, and held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815.
• Toussaint L'Ouverture: The leader of the Haitian Revolution.
• Pedro I: The founder and first ruler of the Empire of Brazil.
• Creoles: People of Spanish or other European descent born in the Americas.
• Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla: A Spanish Catholic priest, leader of the Mexican War of Independence.
• José Maria Morelos: A Mexican Roman Catholic priest, patriot and general who led the Mexican War of Independence movement.
• Simón Bolívar: A Venezuelan military and political leader who led what are currently the states of Venezuela, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Panama to independence from the Spanish Empire.
• Jose de San Martin: An Argentine general and the prime leader of the southern part of South America's successful struggle for independence from the Spanish Empire.
• Gran Columbia: A short-lived republic that encompassed the modern-day countries of Colombia, Ecuador, Panama and Venezuela.
• King Jaja of Opobo: A Nigerian merchant prince and the founder of the kingdom of Opobo.
• Bourgeoisie: The middle class, typically with reference to its perceived materialistic values or conventional attitudes.
• Industrial revolution: The transition to new manufacturing processes in Europe and the United States, in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840.
• James Watt: A Scottish inventor, mechanical engineer, and chemist who improved on Thomas Newcomen's 1712 Newcomen steam engine with his Watt steam engine in 1776.
• Luddites: A member of any of the bands of English workers who destroyed machinery, especially in cotton and woolen mills, that they believed was threatening their jobs (1811–16).
• Decembrists: Russian army officers who were part of a revolutionary society to promote liberal reforms and a constitutional government.
• Muhammad Ali: An Ottoman Albanian commander in the Ottoman army who rose to the rank of Pasha of Egypt and Sudan.
• Selim III: The Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1789 to 1807.
• Mahmud II: The Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 to 1839.
• Janissaries: An elite infantry unit that formed the Ottoman Sultan's household troops and bodyguards.
• Primary sources: Materials created during the time period being studied, or by someone who experienced the events first-hand.
• Secondary sources: Accounts of events that are created after the fact.
• Tertiary sources: Distill and collect information from primary and secondary sources.
• King Jaja of Opobo: A Nigerian merchant prince and the founder of the kingdom of Opobo.
• Annie Besant: A British socialist, theosophist, women's rights activist, writer, orator, political party member, educationist, and philanthropist.
• Matchstick Girls: Young women employed in match factories during the late 19th century.
• Bryant & May: A British match-making company formed in 1843.
• Wahhabism: A conservative and austere form of Islam that emerged in the 18th century in Arabia.
• Usman dan Fodio: A Fulani scholar who founded the Sokoto Caliphate in modern-day Nigeria.
• Fulani: An ethnic group with origins in the Sahel region of West Africa.
• Sufis / Sufism: A mystical branch of Islam that emphasizes introspection and spiritual closeness with God.
• Mfecane: A period of widespread chaos and warfare among indigenous ethnic communities in southern Africa during the period between 1815 and about 1840.
• Zulus: A Bantu ethnic group of Southern Africa and the largest ethnic group in South Africa.
• Qing: The last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912.
• Millenarian: The belief in a future thousand-year age of blessedness, beginning with or culminating in the Second Coming of Christ.
• Opium War: Two wars waged between the Qing dynasty and Western powers in the mid-19th century
• Hong Xiuquan: A Hakka Chinese religious prophet who was the leader of the Taiping Rebellion against the Qing Dynasty.
• Taiping Rebellion: A large-scale revolt against the Qing dynasty in China, lasting from 1850 to 1864.
• Radicalism: Belief in the need to find and eliminate the basic causes of societal problems
• Liberalism: A political and moral philosophy based on liberty, consent of the governed and equality before the law.
• Nationalists: Advocates of or believes in nationalism.
• Charles Fourier: A French utopian socialist.
• Utopian socialism: The earliest form of the modern socialist movement.
• Phalanx: The basic unit of Charles Fourier's projected communities, based on a cooperative model.
• Karl Marx: A German philosopher, economist, sociologist, historian, journalist, political theorist and socialist revolutionary.
• Proletarians: The term Karl Marx used to describe the working class, often exploited by the bourgeoisie.
• Tenskwatawa: A Native American religious and political leader of the Shawnee tribe, and brother of Tecumseh.
• Tecumseh: A Shawnee chief and warrior who promoted resistance to the expansion of the United States.
• Caste War of Yucatan: A conflict between the Maya people of the Yucatán Peninsula and the Yucateco government.
• East India Company: A British company originally created to control trade between Britain, India, and East Asia, but which came to rule large areas of India in the 18th century.
• Charter Act: An act of the British Parliament that renewed the charter of the British East India Company.
• Sepoy Rebellion: A revolt against British rule in India in 1857-1859.
• Nana Asma'u: A Hausa princess, poet, teacher, and daughter of the founder of the Sokoto Caliphate, Usman dan Fodio.
• Theocracies: A system of government in which priests rule in the name of God or a god.
• Jihad: A religious duty of Muslims.
• Charterism: A British working-class movement for political reform which existed from 1838 to 1858.
• Trade Unions: An organized association of workers, often in a trade or profession, formed to protect and further their rights and interests.
• Grand National Consolidated Trade Union: An early attempt to form a national labor organization in the United Kingdom.
• Peterloo Massacre: A cavalry charge into a crowd of protestors at St Peter's Field, Manchester, England, on 16 August 1819.

Potential Essay Questions

• Communications transformation after 1750 significantly altered global interactions; innovations like the telegraph and printing press enhanced information dissemination.
• The American Revolution touched on themes of liberty, self-governance, economic freedom, and republicanism.
• Napoleon's domestic policies involved legal reform with the Napoleonic Code and centralization of power. His foreign policy aimed for European dominance with the Continental System, striving to isolate Britain economically, though ultimately failed.
• Atlantic Revolutions showed varied catalysts, revolting populations, and outcomes across America, France, Mexico, South America, Brazil, and Haiti.
• Texts on slavery by Wesley, Society of Friends of Blacks, van Ryneveld, and Osei Bonsu presented diverse arguments for and against slavery.
• Napoleon's impact on Russia, Egypt, and the Ottoman Empire led to reform efforts with varied final outcomes.
• The Industrial Revolution's start in Britain was influenced by factors such as resources, political stability, and innovation. Its effects on urban Britain include overcrowding and pollution. The Matchstick factory workers responded at the Matchstick factory, resulting in reforms in working conditions.
• The Opium War was rooted in trade imbalances and extraterritoriality, involving the Qing Dynasty and the East India Company.
• The Taiping Rebellion leader was Hong Xiuquan which reflected alternative visions in the 19th Century
• The Sepoy Rebellion highlighted alternative visions in the 19th century and resulted in consequences.
• Wahhabism, Usman dan Fodio's movement, and the Mfecane showcased unique alternative visions. Shaka rose to prominence during the Mfecane as part of the Zulu.
• The Charter Movement sought political reform as it reflected an alternative vision in society.
• Marxism offers an alternative vision through concepts like the bourgeoisie, proletariat, means of production, and communism.