Cognitive Psychology Concepts Quiz
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Questions and Answers

What cognitive phenomenon occurs when a person fails to notice changes in their environment because their attention is focused elsewhere?

  • Selective Attention
  • Cocktail Party Effect
  • Inattentional Blindness
  • Change Blindness (correct)

    • Which concept describes the ability to focus on a specific auditory input while filtering out other sounds?

  • Inattentional Blindness
  • Pop-out phenomenon
  • Selective Attention (correct)
  • Change Blindness

    • In which phenomenon can individuals miss an obvious visual stimulus due to focusing on something else?

  • Stroop Effect
  • Absolute Threshold
  • Change Blindness (correct)
  • Top-Down Processing

    • What term describes the smallest amount of stimulus intensity needed for a person to detect its presence 50% of the time?

    <p>Absolute Threshold</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which processing method involves using prior knowledge and context to interpret sensory information?

    <p>Top-Down Processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect describes the delayed reaction time when a person is asked to name the color of words rather than the words themselves?

    <p>Stroop Effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In visual perception, which term refers to the phenomenon where something visually distinct commands attention?

    <p>Pop-out phenomenon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by 'bottom-up processing' in sensory perception?

    <p>Sensory receptors registering information for processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes a condition where you are aware of specific details because of the context and your previous knowledge?

    <p>Top-Down Processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the phenomenon known as the 'Cocktail Party Effect' illustrate about auditory attention?

    <p>Listeners can automatically detect their name in a noisy setting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between amplitude and loudness in sound perception?

    <p>Higher amplitude corresponds to louder sounds.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes conduction hearing loss?

    <p>Damage to structures conducting sound waves.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT one of the basic taste sensations?

    <p>Spicy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do the semicircular canals play in sensory perception?

    <p>They monitor head position and movement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mechanism allows for sound localization?

    <p>The intensity and timing of sound arriving at each ear.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does sensory interaction refer to?

    <p>One sense influencing another, like smell influencing taste.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of olfactory receptors?

    <p>To detect and alert the brain to smells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of hearing loss is caused by irreparable damage to hair cells in the cochlea?

    <p>Sensorineural hearing loss.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about taste buds is accurate?

    <p>Taste buds regenerate approximately every two weeks.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What sensation might result from phantom limb syndrome?

    <p>Sensation that an amputated limb is still present.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Weber's Law suggest about the perception of differences in stimuli?

    <p>A constant percentage of change is necessary for detection.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of the eye is primarily responsible for focusing images on the retina?

    <p>Lens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of ganglion cells in the visual system?

    <p>Their axons form the optic nerve.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of color vision, what does the trichromatic theory propose?

    <p>The retina contains three color receptors: red, green, and blue.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following terms best describes the phenomenon where visual stimuli are interpreted as a whole rather than individual components?

    <p>Gestalt Psychology</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which depth cue relies on the use of both eyes?

    <p>Binocular Cues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of feature detectors in the visual cortex?

    <p>To process specific features like shape and movement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which visual phenomenon explains why we can see shapes rather than just lines when looking at an object?

    <p>Closure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the opponent-process theory explain about color perception?

    <p>It involves opposing color pairs that can only detect one color at a time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When perceiving depth, what does the monocular cue of relative size indicate?

    <p>Closer objects appear larger than distant ones.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Just Noticeable Difference (JND) indicate about the perception of stimuli?

    <p>It indicates that larger stimuli require a greater percentage change to be noticed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the eye is responsible for allowing light to enter and beginning the visual process?

    <p>Cornea</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What best describes the function of bipolar cells in the visual system?

    <p>They connect rods and cones to the optic nerve.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Opponent-Process Theory, how do color receptors work?

    <p>They can only process one color at a time due to opposing pairs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the concept of 'closure' relate to perception in Gestalt Psychology?

    <p>It involves completing shapes in our mind even when they are incomplete.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is demonstrated by the phenomenon of afterimages as described by the Opponent-Process Theory?

    <p>They are a result of fatigue in the receptor cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In terms of depth perception, which monocular cue suggests that objects blocking the view of others are perceived as closer?

    <p>Interposition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theory explains the capacity to perceive colors through the combination of three primary colors?

    <p>Trichromatic Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes our brain’s ability to simultaneously process multiple aspects of a visual stimulus?

    <p>Parallel Processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the 'absolute threshold' refer to in sensory perception?

    <p>The minimum stimulus change needed to be noticed 50% of the time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes 'inattentional blindness'?

    <p>Not seeing a visible object while focused on another task</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which phenomenon illustrates the concept of 'change blindness'?

    <p>Not noticing a change in the color of a wall during a discussion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is described by the 'pop-out phenomenon'?

    <p>The immediate recognition of an object that stands out from its surroundings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'top-down processing' rely upon in the sensory perception process?

    <p>Context, knowledge, or experience to interpret sensory information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cognitive phenomenon can be illustrated by the 'Cocktail Party Effect'?

    <p>Selective focus on one auditory input among many</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does bottom-up processing differ from top-down processing in sensory perception?

    <p>Bottom-up processing begins with sensory receptors, while top-down starts with prior knowledge</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Stroop Effect specifically measure?

    <p>The impact of focusing on conflicting information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best reflects the concept of 'sensation'?

    <p>The registration of stimuli through sensory receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic defines the minimum amount of change detectable in a stimulus according to the concept of 'just noticeable difference'?

    <p>It varies based on perceived intensity or existing levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the distance of objects affect their clarity in visual perception?

    <p>Objects that are sharp and clear are perceived as closer.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the cochlear implant technology in addressing hearing loss?

    <p>It translates sounds into electrical signals sent to the auditory nerve.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements accurately describes the mechanism of sound localization?

    <p>The brain uses the timing and intensity of sounds at each ear to determine direction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do vestibular sacs play in sensory perception?

    <p>They monitor head position and movement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about the regeneration of taste buds is true?

    <p>Taste buds regenerate approximately every two weeks.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of hair-like receptors in the inner ear?

    <p>To send signals regarding head movement and position.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Gate Control Theory of pain suggest?

    <p>Distractions can shut the pain signals 'gate' in the spinal cord.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of supertasters in gustation?

    <p>They possess a higher number of taste buds, resulting in increased sensitivity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do olfactory receptors notify the brain of detected smells?

    <p>They alert the brain through their axon fibers immediately upon detection.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon explains the sensation experienced by individuals with phantom limb syndrome?

    <p>Electrical activity in the sensory cortex tricks the brain into perceiving a missing limb.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage change in weight is necessary for an average person to perceive a difference?

    <p>2%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the eye is responsible for transferring neural impulses to the brain?

    <p>Optic Nerve</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theory posits that the retina contains three color receptors that correspond to red, green, and blue?

    <p>Trichromatic Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon occurs when we perceive an image as a whole rather than as separate parts, according to Gestalt psychology?

    <p>Gestalt Effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which depth cue requires the use of both eyes for accurate distance perception?

    <p>Retinal Disparity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What best describes the function of feature detectors in the visual cortex?

    <p>Respond to specific shapes and movement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which receptor type in the retina is primarily responsible for color detection in well-lit conditions?

    <p>Cones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What visual phenomenon is illustrated by the experience of afterimages?

    <p>Opponent-Process Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which visual cue indicates that distant objects appear smaller than those that are closer?

    <p>Relative Size</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of visual processing allows us to perceive multiple aspects of a stimulus simultaneously?

    <p>Parallel Processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs when individuals fail to perceive visible objects because their attention is directed elsewhere?

    <p>Inattentional Blindness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which phenomenon involves a delay in response due to the requirement to name the color of the words instead of the words themselves?

    <p>The Stroop Effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main characteristic of top-down processing in sensory perception?

    <p>It integrates sensory input with past experiences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term defines the smallest detectable level of stimulus intensity a person can recognize 50% of the time?

    <p>Absolute Threshold</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which scenario would an individual most likely experience change blindness?

    <p>When they are temporarily distracted from their surroundings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the pop-out phenomenon illustrate in the context of attention?

    <p>Attention is easily directed to novel stimuli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does bottom-up processing primarily operate in sensory perception?

    <p>By using direct sensory input to inform awareness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best characterizes the cocktail party effect?

    <p>Recognizing your name amidst background noise.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon describes the situation where a person is aware of specific details, such as the arrangement of letters, due to context and knowledge?

    <p>Top-down processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'just noticeable difference' relate to in the context of perception?

    <p>The minimum change in stimulus intensity detected 50% of the time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of hearing loss results from damage to the cochlea's hair cells?

    <p>Sensorineural Hearing Loss</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for experiencing dizziness even after the head has stopped moving?

    <p>Fluid in the semicircular canals takes time to settle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of sound is indicated by the amplitude of the wave?

    <p>Loudness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following sensations is NOT one of the five basic tastes?

    <p>Fruity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of olfactory receptors?

    <p>To detect chemical particles in the air</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon describes the sensitivity of supertasters to certain flavors?

    <p>Enhanced Taste Perception</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Gate Control Theory of pain suggest?

    <p>A neurological gate determines the transmission of pain signals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What sensory function is primarily facilitated by the stirring of hair-like receptors in the cochlea?

    <p>Hearing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of sensory interaction occurs when smell influences taste?

    <p>Cross-Modal Perception</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic feature of phantom limb sensation?

    <p>It involves miscommunication in brain sensory processing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does selective attention primarily focus on?

    <p>Focusing on a particular stimulus while filtering out others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which phenomenon describes the difficulty in naming the color of words when the word itself denotes a different color?

    <p>The Stroop Effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does change blindness refer to in the context of perception?

    <p>The incapacity to notice changes in visual stimuli when distracted</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the pop-out phenomenon illustrate in visual perception?

    <p>Distinct objects can be easily recognized in complex backgrounds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of processing involves sensory receptors sending information to the brain for interpretation?

    <p>Bottom-up processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of absolute threshold in sensory perception?

    <p>Hearing a watch ticking from 20 feet away</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does top-down processing affect perception?

    <p>It uses past experiences and context to interpret sensory information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes the cocktail party effect?

    <p>People can focus on one voice while ignoring other conversations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is indicated by the term 'just noticeable difference' (JND)?

    <p>The minimum change in a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the cochlea play in sensorineural hearing loss?

    <p>It contains hair cells that convert sound vibrations into electrical signals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sensory system primarily relies on the movement of fluid to provide feedback about position and balance?

    <p>Vestibular sense</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of hearing loss can be treated with surgical intervention?

    <p>Conductive hearing loss</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What sensation is most directly linked to the interaction between taste and smell?

    <p>Gustation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition refers to the inability to recognize faces?

    <p>Prosopagnosia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How often do taste buds typically regenerate?

    <p>Every two weeks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Gate Control Theory primarily describe?

    <p>The modulation of pain signals traveling to the brain.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which phenomenon describes a heightened sensitivity to certain tastes and sensations due to the number of taste buds?

    <p>Supertasters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is primarily responsible for the perception of loudness in sound?

    <p>Amplitudes of sound waves</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the ability to determine the direction of sound based on the intensity and timing at which it arrives at each ear?

    <p>Sound localization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage change in weight is necessary for an average person to notice a difference?

    <p>2%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cells are primarily responsible for detecting color and fine detail in the retina?

    <p>Cones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of ganglion cells in the visual system?

    <p>Transmit neural impulses to the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the Opponent-Process Theory explain the phenomenon of afterimages?

    <p>By indicating retinal fatigue of opposing colors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of Gestalt psychology, what does the principle of 'closure' refer to?

    <p>The ability to see whole shapes instead of lines</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which depth cue relies exclusively on the use of one eye?

    <p>Relative size</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following cells in the visual process connect rods and cones to the ganglion cells?

    <p>Bipolar cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Trichromatic Theory, how do we perceive color?

    <p>By stimulation of three different color receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of visual perception does parallel processing address?

    <p>The integration of multiple stimuli aspects into a whole</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon contributes to the perception of depth when objects partially obscure each other?

    <p>Interposition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which concept best describes the phenomenon where a person fails to see visible objects due to their attention being directed elsewhere?

    <p>Change Blindness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'absolute threshold' represent in sensory perception?

    <p>The weakest amount of a stimulus that can be detected</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cognitive phenomenon illustrates the ability to focus on a specific auditory stimulus while ignoring others in a noisy environment?

    <p>Cocktail Party Effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of sensory processing, what deficiency does the 'Stroop Effect' mainly reveal?

    <p>Delayed reaction time due to conflicting information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'top-down processing' primarily involve in sensory perception?

    <p>Using prior knowledge and context to interpret what is perceived</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon explains why people can still read scrambled text as long as the first and last letters are correctly placed?

    <p>Top-down Processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately reflects a key characteristic of selective attention?

    <p>It can render some stimuli unnoticed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main distinction between bottom-up and top-down processing?

    <p>Bottom-up begins with sensory input, while top-down involves prior knowledge.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What best describes the 'pop-out phenomenon' in visual perception?

    <p>Identifying a distinctive visual element among similar ones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which effect is primarily illustrated when an individual reacts more quickly to the color red when it is written in green ink instead of red ink?

    <p>Stroop Effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What causes conduction hearing loss?

    <p>Damage to the structures that conduct sound waves through the outer and middle ear</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does frequency affect sound perception?

    <p>Lower frequencies are perceived as bass sounds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of sensorineural hearing loss?

    <p>It is due to damage to the cochlea's hair cells or the auditory nerve</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the vestibular sense play in the body?

    <p>Monitors body position and movement in space</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What unique feature distinguishes supratasters from other tasters?

    <p>They have a higher number of taste buds and increased pain sensitivity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the process of olfaction, how are smells detected?

    <p>By inhaling particles that trigger olfactory receptors in the nasal cavity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Gate Control Theory of pain suggest?

    <p>The spinal cord can block or allow pain signals to reach the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of fluid movement in the semicircular canals?

    <p>It can create a sensation of motion even when the body is still</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon describes the ability of one sense to influence another?

    <p>Sensory Interaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which bodily system is responsible for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts?

    <p>Kinesthetic System</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the cornea in the visual system?

    <p>To protect the eye and focus light</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of depth perception, what is retinal disparity?

    <p>The slight difference in images received by each eye</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the concept of parallel processing in visual perception?

    <p>Integrating various aspects of a visual stimulus at once</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of the opponent-process theory explains the phenomenon of afterimages?

    <p>The fatigue of color receptors when overstimulated</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Weber's Law, what percentage change in weight is necessary for the average person to notice a difference?

    <p>2%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do feature detectors in the visual cortex primarily respond to?

    <p>Specific shapes and movements in a stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In color vision, what does the trichromatic theory propose?

    <p>The retina contains receptors for red, green, and blue colors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What Gestalt principle explains our tendency to see a complete shape rather than a series of disconnected lines?

    <p>Closure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which depth cue helps us perceive that an object is farther away if it appears smaller than another object?

    <p>Relative Size</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do bipolar cells serve in the visual system?

    <p>They connect photoreceptors to ganglion cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which phenomenon describes the failure to detect a visual stimulus when attention is directed elsewhere?

    <p>Inattentional Blindness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of processing begins with sensory input and builds up to perception?

    <p>Bottom-Up Processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Stroop Effect primarily demonstrate about cognitive processing?

    <p>Interference in task performance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the phenomenon where a sudden stimulus captures attention due to its distinctiveness?

    <p>Pop-out Phenomenon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term is used to describe the minimum change in a stimulus that can be reliably detected?

    <p>Just Noticeable Difference</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which concept reflects the brain's ability to process multiple auditory inputs selectively?

    <p>Cocktail Party Effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor describes our awareness of changes in sensory stimuli only when the change exceeds a certain threshold?

    <p>Differential Sensitivity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What best describes the cognitive phenomenon where familiar words are still legible despite jumbled letters, emphasizing prior knowledge?

    <p>Top-Down Processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the phenomenon where we fail to notice a change in our environment because our attention is focused elsewhere?

    <p>Change Blindness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term refers to the weakest amount of a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time?

    <p>Absolute Threshold</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the cochlear implant?

    <p>To translate sounds into electrical signals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about amplitude and sound is incorrect?

    <p>High amplitudes correspond to soft sounds.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of sensorineural hearing loss?

    <p>It affects the cochlea’s hair cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the vestibular sense?

    <p>It provides information on the body's position in space.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which taste sensation is primarily associated with proteins?

    <p>Umami</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon can occur when fluid in the ear does not settle immediately after movement?

    <p>Dizziness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes the phenomenon of synesthesia?

    <p>A condition where one sense triggers another</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the gate control theory of pain suggest?

    <p>Certain stimuli can block the transmission of pain signals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition is known as prosopagnosia?

    <p>Difficulty in recognizing familiar faces</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How often do taste buds regenerate?

    <p>Approximately every two weeks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the iris in the eye?

    <p>It controls the size of the pupil to regulate light entry.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes the role of ganglion cells in the visual system?

    <p>Their axons make up the optic nerve, transmitting neural impulses to the brain.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between binocular and monocular cues in depth perception?

    <p>Binocular cues depend on the combination of images from both eyes, while monocular cues can use only one eye.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which depth cue would be used to perceive an object as farther away because it appears smaller than a similar object in the foreground?

    <p>Relative size</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the trichromatic theory, how do we perceive colors?

    <p>By combining the signals from three different types of color receptors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the opponent-process theory suggest about the perception of colors?

    <p>Color perception is influenced by contrasting colors opposing each other.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best exemplifies the principle of closure in Gestalt psychology?

    <p>Filling in gaps to perceive a complete shape.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of visual perception, what does the term 'transduction' refer to?

    <p>The conversion of light into neural signals by photoreceptors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Weber’s Law, under what condition will a difference in weight be noticed?

    <p>If the added weight represents a percentage change of the original weight.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does dark adaptation enable us to do?

    <p>Adapt our eyes to lower light levels for better night vision.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Sensation and Perception

    • Selective Attention: Focusing on a specific stimulus while ignoring others.
    • Stroop Effect: Delayed reaction time when naming the color of a word instead of reading the word itself (e.g., the word "RED" printed in blue ink).
    • Change Blindness: Failing to notice changes in an environment while attention is focused elsewhere.
    • Inattentional Blindness: Failing to see visible objects when attention is directed elsewhere.
    • Cocktail Party Effect: Ability to focus on a particular sound or voice amidst background noise.
    • Pop-out Phenomenon: Something visually different stands out and grabs attention.
    • Top-Down Processing: Using knowledge, experience, or context to interpret sensory perceptions (perception).
    • Bottom-Up Processing: Sensory receptors register information from the external environment and send it to the brain for processing (sensation).
    • Absolute Threshold: The minimum amount of a stimulus needed for someone to detect it 50% of the time (the point when someone notices something).
    • Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference): The minimum amount of change required for someone to notice a difference between two stimuli 50% of the time.
    • Weber's Law: For a person to perceive a difference, two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage, not a constant amount.

    Vision

    • Cornea: Clear, protective outer layer of the eye where light enters.
    • Iris: Colored muscle surrounding the pupil that controls its size (unique to each person).
    • Pupil: Small, adjustable opening that allows light to pass through.
    • Lens: Transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to focus images on the retina. Accommodation: The process of the lens changing shape to focus on near or far objects.
    • Retina: Light-sensitive inner surface of the eye containing photoreceptors (rods and cones) that detect light. Transduction occurs here.
    • Cones: Photoreceptors in the retina that detect color and fine detail; work poorly in dim light.
    • Rods: Photoreceptors in the retina that enable black and white vision; allow for seeing in dim light.
    • Dark Adaptation: Pupils dilate to allow more light to reach the retina in darkness, taking about 20 minutes.
    • Bipolar Cells: Connect rods and cones to ganglion cells.
    • Ganglion Cells: Axons of ganglion cells make up the optic nerve, carrying neural impulses to the brain for processing.
    • Optic Nerve: Nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.
    • Thalamus: First stopping point for incoming sensory information (excluding smell); routes sensory input to the correct parts of the cortex.
    • Primary Visual Cortex: Located in the occipital lobe; main area for processing vision.
    • Feature Detectors: Neurons in the visual cortex that respond to specific features of a stimulus (shape, angle, movement).
    • Parallel Processing: Processing many aspects of a stimulus simultaneously.
    • Color Vision: We can distinguish over a million different color variations.
    • Trichromatic Theory: Retina contains three color receptors (red, green, blue) that create the perception of all colors when stimulated in combination.
    • Color Blindness: Inability to see colors normally due to impaired function of red, green, or blue cones.
    • Opponent-Process Theory: Color perception is controlled by three pairs of opposing colors (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black).
    • Afterimages: Visual illusions where retinal images persist after the stimulus is removed.
    • Gestalt Psychology: Emphasis on how we integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
    • Proximity: Grouping close objects together during perception.
    • Similarity: Grouping similar objects together during perception.
    • Closure: Tendency to perceive a closed shape rather than lines, filling in gaps.
    • Figure-Ground: Organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground).

    Depth Perception

    • Binocular Cues: Depth cues that require both eyes.
    • Retinal Disparity: Left and right fields of vision provide slightly different images when focusing on a single object.
    • Monocular Cues: Depth cues that require only one eye.
    • Relative Size: Objects that appear smaller are perceived as farther away than objects that appear larger.
    • Interposition: Objects partially blocking the view of another object are perceived as closer.
    • Linear Perspective: Parallel lines appear to converge at a vanishing point in the distance. The closer the lines, the further the distance.
    • Relative Clarity: Objects that appear sharp, clear, and detailed are seen as closer than hazy objects.

    Audition (Hearing)

    • Amplitude: The height of a sound wave determines the loudness (high amplitude = loud, low amplitude = soft).
    • Wavelength (Frequency): The number of wavelengths that pass a point in a given period of time determines the pitch (low frequency = bass, high frequency = high ringing).
    • Sound Localization: Determining the source of a sound based on the difference in intensity and arrival time of the sound between the ears.
    • Conduction Hearing Loss: Damage to structures that conduct sound waves through the outer and middle ear (eardrum, ossicle bones, auditory canal). Can be fixed by surgery.
    • Sensorineural Hearing Loss (Nerve Deafness): Damage to the cochlea's hair cells or auditory nerve (inner ear). Cannot be reversed; cochlear implants can help.

    Vestibular Sense

    • Monitors the head's position and movement.
    • Fluid in the semicircular canals and vestibular sacs moves when the head rotates or tilts, sending signals to the cerebellum.
    • Dizziness can occur when the fluid takes time to settle after the head stops moving.

    Olfaction (Smell)

    • Millions of receptors in the nasal cavity detect smells.
    • Smelling particles are inhaled and detected by olfactory receptors.
    • Olfactory receptors send signals to the brain via their axon fibers, bypassing the thalamus.
    • Smell is processed in areas connected to the limbic system.

    Gustation (Taste)

    • Around 200 taste buds on the tongue contain taste receptors.
    • Taste buds regenerate every two weeks.
    • Five basic taste sensations: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami (proteins).
    • Supertasters, medium tasters, and non-tasters exist.
    • Sensory interaction occurs when one sense influences another (e.g., smell influencing taste).

    Touch

    • Skin receptors specialize in sensing pressure, cold, warmth, and pain.
    • "Sense of touch" is a combination of these senses and other skin sensations.

    Pain

    • Pain signals to the brain to change behavior when something is wrong.
    • Gate Control Theory: The spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that either blocks or allows pain signals to pass to the brain.
    • Phantom Limb: The sensation that a missing or amputated limb is still attached.

    Kinesthesis

    • Senses the position and movement of individual body parts.
    • Millions of position and motion sensors in muscles, tendons, and joints provide feedback to the cerebellum, creating the sensation of movement.

    Synesthesia

    • One sort of sensation (hearing) produces another (seeing color).

    Prosopagnosia

    • The inability to recognize faces.

    Sensation and Perception Intro

    • Selective Attention: Focuses our conscious awareness on a specific stimulus, ignoring others.
    • Stroop Effect: Delayed reaction time when naming the color of a word, but not its name, because of cognitive interference.
    • Change Blindness: Failure to notice significant changes in the environment when our attention is directed elsewhere.
    • Inattentional Blindness: Failure to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.
    • Cocktail Party Effect: Ability to focus on a particular voice or sound within a noisy environment, filtering out other sounds.
    • Pop-Out Phenomenon: A distinct stimulus easily captures our attention, standing out from the background.
    • Top-Down Processing: Uses prior knowledge, experience, or context to interpret sensory information, driving perception.
    • Bottom-Up Processing: Sensory receptors gather information about the external environment and send it to the brain for processing, creating sensation.

    Absolute Threshold

    • The minimum amount of a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time.
    • This is the point where we first become aware of a stimulus.
    • Examples: Hearing a watch tick 20 feet away, tasting one teaspoon of salt dissolved in two gallons of water.

    Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference)

    • The minimum amount a stimulus needs to change for a person to notice the difference 50% of the time.
    • Weber's Law: For a person to notice a difference, two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage, not a constant amount.
    • Example: Adding 1 ounce to a 10-ounce weight is noticeable, but adding 1 ounce to a 100-ounce weight is less likely to be perceived.

    Vision

    • Cornea: Clear outer layer of the eye allowing light to enter.
    • Iris: Colored muscle surrounding the pupil that controls its size.
    • Pupil: Adjustable opening that allows light to pass through.
    • Lens: Transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to focus images on the retina.
    • Accommodation: The process where the lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.
    • Retina: Light-sensitive inner surface of the eye containing photoreceptors (rods and cones) that detect light.
    • Cones: Photoreceptors responsible for color vision and fine detail, work poorly in dim light.
    • Rods: Photoreceptors responsible for black and white vision, allow us to see in dim light.
    • Dark Adaptation: Pupil dilates to allow more light to enter in darkness, taking about 20 minutes.
    • Bipolar Cells: Connect rods and cones to ganglion cells.
    • Ganglion Cells: Their axons form the optic nerve, carrying visual information to the brain.
    • Optic Nerve: Carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.
    • Thalamus: First stop for sensory information (except smell) before being routed to the cortex for processing.
    • Primary Visual Cortex: Located in the occipital lobe, the main area for processing visual information.
    • Feature Detectors: Neurons responding to specific features of a stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.

    Color Vision

    • Parallel Processing: Processing multiple aspects of a stimulus simultaneously, integrating information into a complete image.
    • Trichromatic Theory: The retina contains three types of color receptors (red, green, blue). The combination of these produce the perception of any color.
    • Color Blindness: Inability to see colors normally, caused by impaired functioning of red, green, or (rarely) blue cones.
    • Opponent-Process Theory: Three pairs of opposing colors (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) are detected by specialized cells. Only one color in each pair can be detected at a time.
    • Afterimages: Visual illusion where a perceived image persists even after the stimulus is removed.

    Depth Perception

    • Binocular Cues: Rely on the use of both eyes.
      • Retinal Disparity: The slight difference in the image projected onto each retina when focusing on a single object.
    • Monocular Cues: Require only one eye.
      • Relative Size: Perceiving an object as farther away if it appears smaller than a known object in the foreground.
      • Interposition: An object partially blocking another is perceived as closer.
      • Linear Perspective: Parallel lines appear to converge at a vanishing point in the distance.
      • Relative Clarity: Objects that appear sharp, clear, and detailed are perceived as closer than hazy objects.

    Hearing

    • Amplitude (Height): Determines loudness. Higher amplitude = louder sound, lower amplitude = softer sound.
    • Wavelength (Frequency): The number of waves that pass a point in a given time, determines pitch. Low frequency = bass, high frequency = high ringing.
    • Sound Localization: The ability to tell where a sound is coming from based on the differences in intensity and arrival time between our two ears.

    Hearing Impairments

    • Conduction Hearing Loss: Damage to the structures conducting sound waves through the outer and middle ear.
      • May be caused by damage to the eardrum, ossicle bones, or auditory canal.
      • Surgery can often fix this type of hearing loss.
    • Sensorineural Hearing Loss (Nerve Deafness): Damage to the cochlea's hair cells or the auditory nerve.
      • Cannot be reversed! Cochlear implants can help by translating sounds into electrical signals.

    Vestibular Sense

    • Monitors the head's position and movement, giving the body spatial awareness.
    • Fluid in the semicircular canals and vestibular sacs of the cochlea moves with head rotation or tilting.
    • Hair-like receptors send signals to the cerebellum. The delay in fluid settling after movement can cause dizziness.

    Olfaction (Smell)

    • Millions of receptors in the nasal cavity detect smells.
    • Inhaled particles activate olfactory receptors, sending signals to the brain bypassing the thalamus.
    • Olfactory processing is linked to the limbic system, impacting emotions and memories.

    Gustation (Taste)

    • Taste buds on the tongue contain taste receptors that sense food molecules.
    • There are five basic tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami.
    • Taste bud regeneration occurs approximately every two weeks.
    • Supertasters experience heightened taste sensitivity due to a greater number of taste buds.

    Sensory Interaction

    • One sense can influence another, like smell influencing taste.

    Touch

    • The skin contains receptors that specialize in sensing pressure, cold, warmth, and pain.
    • Our sense of touch is a combination of these receptors and other sensations.

    Pain

    • Pain signals when something is wrong, prompting us to change behavior.
    • Gate Control Theory: The spinal cord has a neurological "gate" that blocks or allows pain signals to the brain. Distractions can close the gate, reducing pain perception.
    • Phantom Limb: The sensation of a missing or amputated limb still being attached due to electrical activity in the sensory cortex.

    Kinesthesis

    • The ability to sense the position and movement of individual body parts.
    • Millions of receptors in muscles, tendons, and joints provide constant feedback to the cerebellum, creating a sense of movement and helping with balance.

    Synesthesia

    • Where one sense (e.g., hearing) triggers a sensation in another sense (e.g., seeing color)

    Prosopagnosia

    • The inability to recognize faces.

    Sensation and Perception

    • Selective Attention: Focusing conscious awareness on a specific stimulus, ignoring others.
    • The Stroop Effect: Delayed reaction time when naming the color of a word, but not the word itself (e.g., the word "RED" printed in blue).
    • Change Blindness: Failure to notice changes in the environment when attention is directed elsewhere.
    • Inattentional Blindness: Failure to see visible objects when attention is directed elsewhere.
    • Cocktail Party Effect: Ability to focus on a single voice or sound within a crowded environment, filtering out other sounds.
    • Pop-out Phenomenon: A distinct stimulus grabs attention.
    • Top-Down Processing: Using prior knowledge, experience, and context to interpret sensory perceptions.
    • Bottom-Up Processing: Sensory receptors gather information from the environment and send it to the brain for processing.

    Absolute Threshold

    • Definition: The weakest amount of a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time.
    • Examples: Hearing a watch ticking from 20 feet away, tasting one teaspoon of salt in two gallons of water.

    Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference)

    • Definition: The minimum amount something needs to change before a person notices the change 50% of the time.
    • Weber's Law: For an average person to perceive a difference, two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage, not a constant amount.

    Vision

    • Cornea: Clear, protective outer layer of the eye where light enters.
    • Iris: Colored muscle that surrounds the pupil, controlling its size.
    • Pupil: Adjustable opening that allows light to pass through.
    • Lens: Transparent structure that changes shape to focus images on the retina.
    • Accommodation: The process of the lens changing shape to focus on near or far objects.
    • Retina: Light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing photoreceptors called rods and cones, where transduction occurs.
    • Cones: Detect color and fine detail, work poorly in dim light.
    • Rods: Enable black and white vision, active in dim light.
    • Dark Adaptation: In darkness, pupils dilate to allow more light to reach the retina. Adaptation takes about 20 minutes.
    • Bipolar Cells: Connect rods and cones to ganglion cells.
    • Ganglion Cells: Their axons make up the optic nerve.
    • Optic Nerve: Carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.
    • Thalamus: The first stopping point for sensory input (except for smell), routing it to the appropriate areas in the cortex for processing.
    • Primary Visual Cortex: Located in the occipital lobe, the main area for processing vision.
    • Feature Detectors: Neurons in the visual cortex that respond to specific features of a stimulus (e.g., shape, angle, movement).

    Parallel Processing

    • The processing of many aspects of a stimulus simultaneously.
    • The brain integrates all aspects into a whole image.

    Color Vision

    • Trichromatic Theory: Three different color receptors in the retina (red, green, blue). Combinations produce perception of any color.
    • Color Blindness: The inability to see colors normally, often from impaired functioning of red and green cones.
    • Opponent-Process Theory: Three sets of opposing color cells: red-green, yellow-blue, and white-black.
    • Afterimages: A visual illusion where retinal images persist after the stimulus is removed (e.g., staring at green then white).

    Gestalt Psychology

    • Emphasizes the tendency to perceive information as organized wholes (organized, meaningful wholes).
    • Proximity: Grouping close objects together during perception.
    • Similarity: Grouping like objects together during perception.
    • Closure: Perceiving closed shapes when there are gaps.
    • Figure-Ground: Organizing the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground).

    Depth Perception

    • Binocular Cues: Depth cues that depend on the use of both eyes.
      • Retinal Disparity: The left and right fields of vision provide slightly different images.
    • Monocular Cues: Depth cues that require only one eye.
      • Relative Size: Perceiving something as farther away when it appears smaller.
      • Interposition: Perceiving an object partially blocking another as closer.
      • Linear Perspective: Parallel lines appear to converge at a vanishing point in the distance.
      • Relative Clarity: Objects that appear sharp and detailed are seen as closer.

    Audition (Hearing)

    • Amplitude: The height of a sound wave, determining loudness; higher amplitude = louder sound.
    • Frequency: The number of wavelengths that pass a point in a specific time, determining pitch; lower frequency = lower pitch (bass).
    • Sound Localization: Ability to tell where a sound is coming from, based on the different intensities and arrival times of sound at each ear.

    Hearing Loss

    • Conduction Hearing Loss: Damage to structures that conduct sound waves, such as the eardrum, ossicle bones, or auditory canal.
    • Sensorineural Hearing Loss (Nerve Deafness): Damage to the cochlea’s hair cells or the auditory nerve.

    Vestibular Sense

    • Monitors the head’s position and movement, enabling the body to know its position in space.
    • Fluid in the semicircular canals of the cochlea moves when the head rotates or tilts, triggering hair-like receptors that send signals to the cerebellum.

    Olfaction (Smell)

    • Millions of receptors in the nasal cavity detect smells.
    • Smell bypasses the thalamus and is processed in areas connected to the limbic system.

    Gustation (Taste)

    • The tongue contains taste buds with receptors that sense food molecules.
    • Taste buds regenerate every two weeks.
    • Five basic tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami (proteins).

    Sensory Interaction

    • One sense can influence another (e.g., the smell of food influencing taste).

    Touch

    • Receptors in the skin specialize in sensing pressure, cold, warmth, and pain.

    Pain

    • Pain is a signal that something is wrong, prompting a change in behavior.
    • Gate Control Theory: The spinal cord contains a "gate" that blocks or allows pain signals to reach the brain.
    • Phantom Limb: Feeling a missing or amputated limb is still attached (electrical activity in the sensory cortex).

    Kinesthesis

    • The system for sensing the position and movement of body parts.
    • Millions of position and motion sensors in muscles, tendons, and joints provide feedback to the cerebellum.

    Synesthesia

    • When one sensation (e.g., sound) produces another (e.g., color).

    Prosopagnosia

    • The inability to recognize faces.

    Selective Attention

    • The ability to focus on a particular stimulus while ignoring other stimuli.

    The Stroop Effect

    • Delayed reaction time when saying the color of a word instead of the word itself.

    Change Blindness

    • Failing to notice changes in the environment when attention is focused elsewhere.

    Inattentional Blindness

    • Failing to see visible objects when attention is focused elsewhere.

    Cocktail Party Effect

    • Ability to focus on a particular voice while filtering out others.

    Pop-Out Phenomenon

    • When something different grabs your attention.

    Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up Processing

    • Top-down processing: using knowledge and experience to interpret sensory perceptions.
    • Bottom-up processing: sensory receptors register information and send it to the brain for processing.

    Absolute Threshold

    • The weakest amount of a stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time.

    Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference)

    • The minimum amount that something needs to change for a person to notice the difference 50% of the time.

    Weber's Law

    • For a difference to be noticed, two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage rather than a constant amount.

    Vision

    • Our eyes provide a lot of information about the world around us.

    Cornea

    • Clear, protective outer layer of the eye where light enters.

    Iris

    • Colored muscle surrounding the pupil that controls its size.

    Pupil

    • Small, adjustable opening that allows light to pass through.

    Lens

    • Transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to focus images on the retina.

    Accommodation

    • The process by which the lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.

    Retina

    • Light-sensitive inner surface of the eye containing photoreceptors called rods and cones.

    Cones

    • Photoreceptors in the retina that detect color and fine detail, but work poorly in dim light.

    Rods

    • Photoreceptors in the retina that enable black and white vision and allow you to see in dim light.

    Dark Adaptation

    • In darkness, the pupils dilate to allow more light to reach the retina.

    Bipolar Cells

    • Connect rods and cones to the ganglion cells.

    Ganglion Cells

    • Their axons make up the optic nerve, carrying neural impulses to the brain for processing.

    Optic Nerve

    • Carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.

    Thalamus

    • The first stopping point for all sensory input (except smell).

    Primary Visual Cortex

    • Located in the occipital lobe, it is the main area for processing vision.

    Feature Detectors

    • Neurons in the visual cortex that respond to specific features of a stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.

    Parallel Processing

    • The processing of many aspects of a stimulus simultaneously.

    Color Vision

    • We can distinguish over 1 million different color variations.

    Trichromatic Theory

    • The theory that the retina contains three different color receptors: red, green, and blue.

    Color Blindness

    • The inability to see colors in a normal way.

    Opponent-Process Theory

    • Three types of cells with opposing colors control our ability to perceive color: red-green, yellow-blue, white-black.

    Afterimages

    • A visual illusion where retinal images persist after the stimulus is removed.

    Gestalt Psychology

    • Emphasizes our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

    Proximity

    • We tend to group close objects together during perception.

    Similarity

    • We tend to group like objects together during perception.

    Closure

    • We tend to see closed shapes rather than lines, filling in the gaps.

    Figure-Ground

    • The organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings.

    Depth Perception

    • Our ability to estimate an object’s distance from us.

    Binocular Cues

    • Depth cues that depend on the use of both eyes. These cues include:
      • Retinal Disparity: The left and right fields of vision provide slightly different visual images when focusing on a single object.

    Monocular Cues

    • Depth cues that only require one eye. These cues include:
      • Relative Size: We perceive something as farther away if it looks smaller than an object in the foreground that we assume is similar in size.
      • Interposition: If one object partially blocks the view of another, we perceive it as closer.
      • Linear Perspective: Parallel lines appear to converge at a vanishing point in the distance.
      • Relative Clarity: Objects that appear sharp and clear are seen as closer.

    Audition (Hearing)

    • The sense of hearing.

    Amplitude

    • The height of a sound wave, determining loudness.

    Wavelength

    • The length of a sound wave, determining pitch.

    Sound Localization

    • The ability to tell where a sound is coming from based on differences in intensity and arrival time to each ear.

    Conduction Hearing Loss

    • Caused by damage to structures that conduct sound waves through the outer and middle ear.

    Sensorineural Hearing Loss (Nerve Deafness)

    • Caused by damage to the cochlea's hair cells or the auditory nerve.

    Vestibular Sense

    • Monitors the head's position and movement.

    Olfaction (Smell)

    • The sense of smell.

    Gustation (Taste)

    • The sense of taste.

    Sensory Interaction

    • One sense can influence another.

    Touch

    • The sense of touch, including pressure, cold, warmth, and pain.

    Pain

    • Your body’s way of telling you something is wrong.

    Gate Control Theory

    • Theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks or allows pain signals to pass to the brain.

    Phantom Limb

    • The sensation that a missing or amputated limb is still attached.

    Kinesthesis

    • The system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts.

    Synesthesia

    • When one sort of sensation (like hearing sound) produces another (like seeing color).

    Prosopagnosia

    • The inability to recognize faces.

    Sensation and Perception

    • Selective Attention: Our conscious awareness focuses on one stimulus, ignoring others.
    • Stroop Effect: Demonstrates the interference between automatic and controlled processing.
    • Change Blindness: Failing to notice visual changes in our environment when our attention is elsewhere.
    • Inattentional Blindness: Failing to see visible objects when our attention is diverted.
    • Cocktail Party Effect: The ability to focus auditory attention on a particular voice or sound, filtering out other sounds.
    • Pop-Out Phenomenon: Something different or unexpected grabs our attention.
    • Top-Down Processing: Uses prior knowledge, experience, and context to interpret perceptions.
    • Bottom-Up Processing: Sensory receptors send information to the brain, enabling straightforward sensations of stimuli.
    • Absolute Threshold: The minimum stimulus intensity needed for detection 50% of the time.
    • Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference): The minimum amount of change required for someone to notice the difference.
    • Weber's Law: The difference threshold is a constant percentage of the original stimulus.

    Vision

    • Cornea: The transparent, protective outer layer of the eye, where light enters.
    • Iris: The colored muscle surrounding the pupil, controlling its size.
    • Pupil: The adjustable opening that allows light to pass through.
    • Lens: The transparent structure behind the pupil, changing shape to focus images on the retina.
    • Accommodation: The lens changes shape to focus near or far objects.
    • Retina: The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye containing photoreceptors (rods and cones). Transduction occurs here.
    • Rods: Photoreceptors that detect black and white, allowing us to see in dim light.
    • Cones: Photoreceptors that detect color and fine detail, working less effectively in dim light.
    • Dark Adaptation: Our pupils dilate in darkness, allowing more light to reach the retina. It takes about 20 minutes.
    • Bipolar Cells: Connect rods and cones to ganglion cells.
    • Ganglion Cells: Their axons make up the optic nerve, carrying neural impulses to the brain.
    • Optic Nerve: Carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.
    • Thalamus: The first stopping point for sensory information (except smell), routing it to the appropriate areas of the cortex.
    • Primary Visual Cortex: Located in the occipital lobe, the main area for processing vision.
    • Feature Detectors: Neurons in the visual cortex that respond to specific stimulus features, like shapes, angles, or movement.
    • Parallel Processing: Processing many aspects of a stimulus simultaneously.
    • Color Vision: We can perceive over 1 million different color variations.
    • Trichromatic Theory: The retina contains three color receptors (red, green, and blue) that produce the perception of any color by combining.
    • Color Blindness: The inability to see colors normally, caused by impaired functioning of cones.
    • Opponent-Process Theory: Three pairs of opposing colors (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) control our color perception. Only one color of each pair can be detected at a time.
    • Afterimages: Visual illusions where retinal images persist after the stimulus is removed.
    • Gestalt Psychology: Emphasizes our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
    • Proximity: We tend to group objects that are close together.
    • Similarity: We group like objects together.
    • Closure: We perceive incomplete shapes as complete by filling in gaps.
    • Figure-Ground: Organizing the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground).
    • Depth Perception: Our ability to estimate an object's distance from us.
    • Binocular Cues: Require the use of both eyes, like retinal disparity.
    • Monocular Cues: Require only one eye, used for perceiving depth at greater distances.
    • Retinal Disparity: Slightly different images from each eye provide depth information.
    • Relative Size: Objects appearing smaller are perceived as farther away.
    • Interposition: If one object partially blocks another, it's seen as closer.
    • Linear Perspective: Parallel lines appear to converge at a vanishing point in the distance.
    • Relative Clarity: Objects appearing sharp and detailed are seen as closer.

    Audition (Hearing)

    • Amplitude: The height of a sound wave determines loudness. Higher amplitude = louder sound.
    • Wavelength:
      • Frequency: The number of wavelengths passing a point per second.
      • Pitch: Low frequency = low pitch (bass). High frequency = high pitch (treble).
    • Sound Localization: Determining the location of a sound source.
      • Stereophonic Hearing: The difference in intensity and arrival time of sound between our ears helps us pinpoint sounds.
    • Conduction Hearing Loss: Damage to structures conducting sound waves through the outer and middle ear (e.g., eardrum, ossicles, auditory canal).
    • Sensorineural Hearing Loss (Nerve Deafness): Damage to the cochlea's hair cells or the auditory nerve. Can't be reversed.
    • Cochlear Implant: Attached to the head, wired into the cochlea, translating sounds into electrical signals for the auditory nerve.

    Vestibular Sense

    • Vestibular Sense: Monitors head position and movement, providing our sense of balance.
    • Semicircular Canals and Vestibular Sacs: Fluid within these cochlea structures moves when the head rotates or tilts, stimulating hair-like receptors.
    • Cerebellum: Receives signals from the hair-like receptors and processes them for our sense of balance and movement.

    Olfaction (Smell)

    • Olfactory Receptors: Millions of receptors at the top of the nasal cavity detect smells.
    • Olfactory Nerve: Olfactory receptors send signals directly to the brain through their axons.
    • Limbic System: Smell bypasses the thalamus and is processed in areas connected to the limbic system, influencing emotions and memories.

    Gustation (Taste)

    • Taste Buds: Located on the tongue, contain taste receptors that sense food molecules.
    • Taste Receptors: Regenerate every two weeks.
    • Five Basic Taste Sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami (proteins).
    • Supertasters, Medium Tasters, Non-Tasters: Individuals vary in their sensitivity to taste due to different numbers of taste buds.

    Sensory Interaction

    • One sense can influence another. For example, the smell of food influences its taste.

    Touch

    • Skin Receptors: Specialize in sensing pressure, cold, warmth, and pain.
    • Gate Control Theory: Explains how pain signals are modulated through a "gate" in the spinal cord, allowing them to pass to the brain or block them.
    • Pain: Pain is a signal to change behavior, indicating something is wrong.

    Phantom Limb

    • The sensation that a missing limb is still attached, caused by electrical activity in the sensory cortex.

    Kinesthesis

    • Senses the position and movement of individual body parts.
    • Receptors in muscles, tendons, and joints provide constant feedback to the cerebellum.

    Synesthesia

    • A condition where one sense (e.g., hearing) triggers another (e.g., seeing color).

    Prosopagnosia

    • The inability to recognize faces.

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    Description

    Test your knowledge of key cognitive psychology phenomena. This quiz covers concepts related to attention, sensory processing, and perception. Challenge yourself with questions about how we perceive and interpret sensory information in our environment.

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