Clinical and Abnormal Psychology Exam

Key Concepts in Clinical and Abnormal Psychology

• Statistical Rarity: Used to identify behaviors or traits that deviate from the norm, indicating potential psychological disorders based on their infrequency.
• Norm Violation: Refers to behaviors that diverge from societal or cultural norms, which may lead to social disapproval or consequences for the individual.
• Distress: Emotional or psychological discomfort that affects well-being and functioning, often signaling a need for support.
• Dysfunction: Disrupted functioning in thoughts, emotions, behaviors, or relationships, indicating a potential psychological issue affecting daily life.
• Clinically Significant: Refers to a level of symptoms impactful enough to warrant psychological or medical intervention.
• Affect: The observable outward expression of emotions, mood, or emotional tone, detectable through various nonverbal cues.
• Syndrome: A cluster of related symptoms and characteristics indicating a specific medical or psychological condition.
• Ventricles: Fluid-filled brain spaces that produce and regulate cerebrospinal fluid, crucial for brain support and cushioning.
• SSRI (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor): Medications utilized for treating depression and anxiety by increasing serotonin levels in the brain.
• Psychotherapy: A formal approach involving dialogue with a trained mental health professional to address emotional and behavioral challenges.
• Reality Principle: The ego's ability to mediate between immediate desires and realistic social demands, guiding appropriate need satisfaction.
• Pleasure Principle: The id-driven human tendency to seek immediate gratification and avoid discomfort, often leading to impulsive behavior.

Psychological Disorders and Concepts

• Neuroses: Disorders characterized by emotional distress and anxiety without a loss of contact with reality, unlike psychosis.
• Psychoses: Severe mental disorders marked by significant thoughts, emotions, and perceptions disruptions, often including hallucinations and delusions.
• Systematic Desensitization: A treatment for phobias involving gradual exposure to fear-inducing stimuli paired with relaxation techniques.
• Token Economy: A behavioral intervention offering tokens as rewards for desired behaviors, which can be exchanged for various benefits.
• Modeling: Learning by observing and mimicking the behavior of others, facilitating the acquisition of new skills or attitudes.
• Cognitive Restructuring: A method that challenges and modifies negative thought patterns to improve emotional well-being.
• Behavioral Experiment: A cognitive-behavioral therapy approach that tests beliefs through real-life actions to validate thoughts and encourage behavioral change.
• Self-Actualization: Fulfilling one’s inherent potential and pursuing meaningful goals as described in humanistic psychology.
• Unconditional Positive Regard: Accepting individuals without judgment, enhancing self-esteem and personal growth.
• Conditions of Worth: External standards set by others that dictate acceptance or approval, possibly inhibiting genuine self-expression.
• Psychopathology: The scientific study of mental disorders and the patterns of psychological distress.
• Therapeutic Alliance: A collaborative and trust-filled relationship between therapist and client aimed at achieving therapeutic goals.
• Diathesis-Stress Model: Suggests that mental disorders arise from an interplay of genetic predisposition and environmental stressors.
• Comorbidity: The simultaneous presence of multiple medical or psychological conditions in an individual.

Anxiety Disorders

• Specific Phobia: An anxiety disorder marked by irrational fear of a particular object or situation, leading to avoidance and distress.
• Panic Disorder: Characterized by recurrent, unexpected panic attacks that create significant fear and behavioral changes.
• Agoraphobia: Fear of situations where escape might be difficult, resulting in avoidance and restricted daily activities.
• Social Anxiety Disorder: Intense fear of social situations, leading to avoidance due to fear of scrutiny or embarrassment.
• Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Persistent worrying about various everyday issues, often accompanied by physical symptoms like fatigue and restlessness.
• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): Involves intrusive, distressing thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors (compulsions) aimed at reducing anxiety.
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Develops after trauma exposure, manifesting through intrusive memories and hypervigilance.

Treatment Techniques and Models

• Negative Reinforcement: Increases behavior likelihood by removing or avoiding an unpleasant stimulus.
• Prepared Classical Conditioning: Readiness to form associations between certain stimuli due to evolutionary factors.
• Exposure Therapy: Involves gradual exposure to feared stimuli to reduce avoidance and anxiety.
• In Vivo Exposure: Confronting real-world fears as a method in exposure therapy.
• Flooding: Intense and prolonged exposure to feared stimuli to expedite the anxiety reduction process.
• Self-Efficacy: Confidence in one's ability to succeed, affecting motivation and resilience.
• Panic Attack: Intense fear episodes with physical and cognitive symptoms that can be overwhelming.
• Neuroticism: A personality trait linked to experiencing negative emotions and heightened stress reactivity.
• Anxiety Sensitivity: The fear of anxiety sensations leading to maladaptive behaviors and anxiety maintenance.
• Interoceptive Exposure: Exposing individuals to bodily sensations linked to anxiety to reduce fear responses.
• Safety Behavior: Actions taken to reduce perceived threat that can prevent learning about actual risks.
• Meta-beliefs: Beliefs about one’s thoughts that influence psychological experiences.
• Avoidance Theory of Worry: Proposes excessive worry serves as an avoidance strategy for distressing emotions.
• Intolerance of Uncertainty Model: Reduced tolerance for uncertainty can heighten distress and anxiety responses.

Eating Disorders and Mood Disorders

• Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD): Obsession over perceived flaws in appearance leading to significant distress and impaired functioning.
• Neuropsychological Model: Understanding disorders through brain structure functions connected to cognitive and emotional symptoms.
• Major Depressive Disorder (MDD): Characterized by severe low mood, loss of interest, and various physical and cognitive symptoms.
• Major Depressive Episode: Lasts at least two weeks with persistent symptoms of low mood and associated changes.
• Anhedonia: Decreased ability to find pleasure in previously enjoyed activities.
• Anorexia Nervosa: Eating disorder focused on severe food intake restriction and fear of weight gain.
• Dysthymic Disorder (PDD): Mild to moderate depressive symptoms lasting two or more years.
• Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder (DMDD): Severe temper outbursts in children, with persistent irritability.
• Conduct Disorder: Persistent behavior patterns violating the rights of others or societal norms.
• Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD): Pattern of defiance toward authority figures without severe antisocial behavior.
• Cortisol: Stress hormone affecting metabolism and the body's stress response.
• Negative Cognitive Triad: Persistent negative thinking about oneself, the world, and the future common in depression.
• Expressed Emotion: Family emotional climate affecting mental disorders, particularly schizophrenia.
• Protective Factors: Conditions that reduce the likelihood of developing mental disorders and promote resilience.
• Psychotic Symptoms: Hallucinations and delusions indicating disconnection from reality.
• Electroconductive Therapy (ECT): Treatment for severe mental disorders involving induced seizures.
• Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD): Depression linked to specific seasons, particularly in low sunlight months.
• Pleasant Activity Scheduling: Scheduling enjoyable activities to counteract depressive symptoms.
• Meta-Analysis: Statistical aggregation of multiple studies to derive broader conclusions.
• Interpersonal Psychotherapy (IPT): Short-term therapy focusing on interpersonal relationships and significant life events.
• Relapse Prevention: Strategies to recognize early signs of depression and manage mood effectively.
• Bipolar Disorder Type 1: Characterized by manic episodes, possibly alternating with depressive episodes.
• Bipolar Disorder Type 2: Involves recurring episodes of major depression and hypomania.### Bipolar Disorder
• Hypomania is a milder form of mania, characterized by elevated mood and energy without severe disruption.
• Rapid cycling bipolar disorder consists of frequent shifts between manic or hypomanic episodes and depressive episodes, occurring within a year or even in days.
• Cyclothymic disorder involves chronic mood fluctuations between mild hypomania and mild depression, affecting daily functioning.

Diagnosis Issues

• Underdiagnosis occurs when mental health disorders are not identified, leading to missed treatment opportunities.
• Overdiagnosis arises when conditions are diagnosed unnecessarily, leading to potential harm from unnecessary treatments.

Hypomanic Episodes

• A hypomanic episode includes abnormally elevated mood and increased goal-directed activity; less severe than full manic episodes.
• Typically associated with Bipolar Disorder 2.

Substance Misuse in Bipolar Disorder

• Problematic use of alcohol or drugs often relates to coping with bipolar symptoms, worsening mood episodes and impairing treatment.

Goal Dysregulation Model

• Individuals with bipolar disorder struggle to regulate goal-directed behavior due to mood state influences, leading to impulsive actions during elevated moods and reduced motivation when depressed.

Role of Temperament

• Traits like emotional reactivity, impulsivity, and sensitivity can increase the risk of developing bipolar disorder, particularly in combination with genetic and environmental factors.

Therapeutic Approaches

• Psychoeducation equips individuals and families with knowledge of mental health conditions, empowering better management of symptoms.
• Interpersonal and Social Rhythm Therapy (IPSRT) combines interpersonal therapy and behavioral techniques to stabilize mood and manage social relationships.

Schizophrenia Symptoms

• Positive symptoms include hallucinations and delusions, while negative symptoms reflect diminished emotional expression and cognitive function.
• Thought disorder disrupts logical thought processes, displayed through disorganized speech and tangential thinking.

Types of Delusions

• Paranoid delusions involve unfounded beliefs of persecution or harm.
• Delusions of reference attribute special significance to ordinary events.
• Somatic delusions concern false beliefs about personal health or bodily integrity.
• Grandiose delusions involve inflated beliefs about one’s importance or abilities.
• Erotomanic delusions involve false beliefs of being loved by someone, often of higher status.

Scenarios of Disorganization

• Disorganized thinking exhibits incoherent speech and thought processes.
• Catatonic behavior includes extremes from immobility to excessive movements.

Phases of Schizophrenia

• Premorbid phase features early signs before full symptoms emerge.
• Prodromal phase precedes acute symptoms, indicating potential illness onset.
• Acute phase involves severe manifestations requiring urgent intervention.
• Recovery phases focus on stabilization and improved functioning post-acute symptoms.

Other Key Concepts

• Enduring psychosis describes persistent symptoms despite treatment.
• Concordance rate measures trait sharing among individuals.
• Gene-environment interaction notes how different genotypes respond to varying environments.

Neurotransmitter Hypothesis

• Dopamine dysregulation underlies schizophrenia, with excessive signaling linked to positive symptoms and reduced signaling causing negative symptoms.

Disorders Related to Somatic Symptoms

• Somatic symptom disorder entails chronic physical symptoms lacking a clear medical cause but accompanied by distress.
• Illness anxiety disorder focuses on excessive worrying about undiagnosed medical conditions.
• Conversion disorder presents with physical symptoms like paralysis without neurological explanation, often linked to trauma.

Psychological Concepts

• Dissociation involves disconnection among thoughts, feelings, and identity.
• Alexithymia is difficulty in identifying and expressing emotions.
• Identity confusion reflects uncertainty about personal identity, while identity alteration signifies shifts in self-perception and personality.

Dissociative Disorders

• Dissociative fugue involves sudden departure and amnesia for past identity.
• Dissociative amnesia includes selective memory loss related to traumatic events.### Memory and Dissociation
• Memory gaps exceed normal forgetfulness; can be temporary or lasting with potential for recovery through therapy.
• Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID), formerly Multiple Personality Disorder, involves multiple identity states in one individual, leading to amnesia and disrupted self-continuity.
• Post-hypnotic amnesia refers to temporary memory loss for events that occurred during hypnosis.

Brain Function and Memory

• The hippocampus and amygdala are crucial in memory and emotional regulation. Traumatic experiences can disrupt their interaction, resulting in fragmented memories and emotional dysregulation.
• State-dependent memory indicates improved recall when the physiological or psychological state during retrieval matches that during memory formation.

Eating Disorders

• Bulimia Nervosa includes binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors like vomiting or excessive exercise.
• Binge Eating Disorder involves binge eating without regular compensatory actions; feelings of loss of control are prominent.
• Pica includes the consumption of non-food substances; rumination disorder involves regurgitating and re-chewing food, often starting in childhood.

Psychological Assessments and Treatments

• The Eating Disorders Inventory (EDI) assesses attitudes and behaviors related to eating disorders through various subscales such as drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction.
• Motivational Enhancement Therapy (MET) increases motivation for behavior change, particularly in substance abuse; techniques include reflective listening and decisional analysis sheets.
• Inpatient treatment requires overnight stays in a facility; outpatient treatment allows individuals to receive care without hospitalization.

Addiction and Withdrawal

• Iatrogenesis is harm caused by medical treatment; withdrawal involves physical and psychological symptoms when discontinuing a substance, varying by dependency level.
• The disease model of addiction views it as a chronic condition, focusing on brain changes due to substance use.

Personality Disorders

• Personality disorders are categorized into three clusters:
  • Cluster A (odd/eccentric): includes Paranoid, Schizoid, and Schizotypal Personality Disorders.
  • Cluster B (dramatic/emotional): includes Antisocial, Borderline, Histrionic, and Narcissistic Personality Disorders.
  • Cluster C (anxious/fearful): includes Avoidant, Dependent, and Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorders.

Specific Conditions

• Schizotypal Personality Disorder involves eccentric behavior and discomfort in close relationships; Paranoid Personality Disorder includes distrust and hypervigilance.
• Antisocial Personality Disorder is characterized by disregard for others’ rights; psychopathy is a severe form marked by manipulation and lack of remorse.
• Dependent Personality Disorder leads to excessive reliance on others for emotional support; Avoidant Personality Disorder is marked by social inhibition and fear of negative evaluation.

Sexual Dysfunction and Therapy

• Sexual dysfunction includes issues like erectile dysfunction and low sexual desire, affecting relationships and well-being.
• Sensate focus exercises enhance intimacy in couples; androgen and estrogen therapies address hormone-related conditions.
• Paraphilias involve intense sexual interests in atypical objects or situations, with specific disorders like exhibitionism and voyeurism.

Cognitive Therapy Approaches

• Beck's cognitive model emphasizes the connection between thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, focusing on cognitive distortions and restructuring.
• Young's schema therapy addresses maladaptive emotional patterns using elements of cognitive-behavioral therapy and attachment theory.

Abnormal Behavior and Treatment

• Abnormal behavior definitions include rarity, distress, dysfunction, and norm violation; treatment is not included.
• Albert Ellis' rational-emotive therapy posits that people respond to their interpretations of events rather than just conditioning or social expectations.
• A significant issue with drug treatment for psychological problems is the high rate of relapse after cessation of the drug.

Diathesis-Stress Model and Mental Disorders

• The diathesis-stress model connects mental disorders to an interaction of biological and psychological factors.
• The dimensional approach to mental disorders suggests that disorders exist along a continuum rather than being strictly categorical.

Phobias and Anxiety Disorders

• In vivo exposure is deemed the most effective treatment for specific phobias.
• Development of a panic disorder typically requires both specific and generalized psychological vulnerabilities.
• Individuals with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) often hold both positive and negative beliefs about worrying.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

• GAD has a lifetime prevalence rate of approximately 6.1% in Australia.
• Cognitive behavior therapy for GAD focuses on identifying negative beliefs and reappraising threats, but clients are not taught to suppress worries.
• The most effective treatment for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is cognitive behavior therapy, not medication.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

• OCD prevalence is estimated between 2-3%.
• OCD diagnosis, according to DSM-5, requires the presence of obsessions or compulsions that cause distress, impact social or occupational functioning, and are not attributed to another condition.
• Common cognitive-behavioral tasks for OCD treatment include exposure and challenging irrational beliefs, not avoidance.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

• PTSD is maintained by avoiding reminders of the trauma; it is recognized through biological, learning, and cognitive models.
• Prolonged exposure therapy has shown the best long-term outcomes for PTSD treatment.
• Interpersonal trauma has a higher likelihood of resulting in PTSD compared to other trauma types.

Bipolar Disorders

• Postnatal depression is a less common but serious disorder affecting women after childbirth.
• After a first depressive episode, many individuals will likely experience another episode (relapse).
• Biological, genetic, stressful life events, and temperament factors contribute to established bipolar disorder risk.

Schizophrenia and Psychosis

• The use of the diagnosis 'schizophrenia' is contested due to stigma, symptom overlap with other disorders, and common barriers faced in society.
• Negative symptoms of psychosis include lack of drive, motivation, emotional expression, and reduced spontaneous speech.
• The treatment for acute episodes of psychosis typically focuses on eliminating positive symptoms through medication.

Eating Disorders

• Anorexia nervosa primarily affects young women.
• An individual displaying abnormal cognitions about shape and weight, while maintaining a normal body weight and engaging in binge eating, is likely diagnosed with bulimia nervosa.
• Cognitive behavior therapy is recognized as the most evidence-based treatment for anorexia nervosa.

Bulimia Nervosa

• The dual pathway model of bulimia nervosa suggests binge eating episodes are commonly triggered by dieting, negative affect, and their interaction.### Substance Use and Disorders
• "Tolerance" refers to needing increasing amounts of a substance to achieve the same effect.
• In substance use disorder treatment, medication can block harmful substance effects, substitute for them, and reduce withdrawal symptoms.
• Individuals using methamphetamine are 11 times more likely to experience psychosis compared to the general community in Australia.
• Cognitive errors in problem gambling include the gambler's fallacy, selective recall, illusionary correlations, and biased evaluations.

Sexual Dysfunction

• Kaplan's stages of sexual functioning do not include "dysfunction."
• Sexual dysfunction can contribute to relationship problems, and vice versa, in a bidirectional manner.
• The medical model for treating erectile difficulties generally assumes that providing an erection will resolve the sexual problem.

Personality Disorders

• Definitions of personality include a consistent pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaving, which is enduring over time and pervasive across situations.
• Cluster B personality disorders display dramatic, acting-out, or flamboyant behaviors.
• The prevalence of personality disorders varies between cultures and over time, indicating they are not static.

Child and Adolescent Disorders

• Internalizing and externalizing disorders are the most common psychological issues in children.
• Drug treatment for ADHD is most effective when combined with psychosocial treatment, enhancing overall outcomes.
• Selective mutism is now thought to be a variant of social phobia rather than a separate condition.

Aging and Memory

• Memory lapses can arise from both normal aging and dementia.
• Positive aging encompasses maintaining a low risk of disease, high mental and physical functioning, and active life engagement.
• Longitudinal studies are preferred for examining age-related changes over time as they are more reliable than cross-sectional studies.

Cognitive Disorders

• Mild neurocognitive disorder involves cognitive changes that negatively impact functioning but does not meet dementia criteria.
• Medications for Alzheimer's disease primarily aim to improve cognitive functions rather than cure the illness or hasten progression.