Classical Conditioning: Learning and Behaviorism

• Classical conditioning involves learning

Basic Assumptions in Behaviorism

• Behaviors or responses can be observed and studied
• Behaviorism reacted against introspection
• Introspection forms no essential part of human psychological methods
• Equipotentiality suggests animals and humans learn in similar ways

Classical Conditioning Process

• A neutral stimulus (CS) becomes associated with another stimulus, like the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), through repeated pairings
• This leads to learning by association

Elements of Classical Conditioning

• There is no need to learn how to respond to some stimuli
• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) evokes an automatic response UCR without learning
• Unconditioned Response (UCR) is an automatic response that occurs towards an UCS and needs no learning

Conditioned Stimulus and Response

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) is a neutral stimulus that, when paired with a natural stimulus (UCS), elicits a response
• Conditioned Response (CR) is a learned response that occurs after association, towards a CS

Conditioning Factors

• Conditioning occurs because of contiguity and reinforcement
• Contiguity relies on timing and repetition pairings, where a close time proximity and frequent repetitions strengthen the connection
• Reinforcement changes behavior through consequences of a behavior
• Contiguity and reinforcement are for both classical and operant conditioning, whilst reinforcement is only for operant

Stages of Classical Conditioning

• A trial is the pairing of the CS and UCS
• The acquisition stage involves trials that build the association, or learning, of the CS and UCS
• Learning curves are affected by the number of trials and the UCS strength
• The strength of the CR increases rapidly then levels off
• Extinction relates to a gradual decrease in the CR when the UCS is no longer paired with the CS. The strength of CR reduces each extinction period where gradually, fewer trials are required for extinction
• Spontaneous recovery is when, after a time lapse following extinction, re-presenting the CS causes the CR to reoccur

Generalization & Higher-Order Conditioning

• Generalization occurs when making similar responses to stimuli that are related to, or resemble the UCS or CS
• Higher-order conditioning pairs a new neutral stimulus with an established CS

Behavior Modification

• Classical conditioning applies to learning and unlearning behaviors and associations, like counterconditioning
• Systematic desensitization slowly builds up to the critical stimulus and is similar to counterconditioning
• Systematic desensitization can help in therapeutic situations, like removing phobias
• Arachnophobia can be treated with systematic desensitization by thinking about a spider, looking at a spider picture, then multiple spider pictures, and then seeing a spider from far away
• Relaxation techniques are critical to this

Operant Conditioning

• Operant conditoning involves an organism that voluntarily acts on the environment
• It includes more complex behaviors
• Here, the controlling stimulus comes after the behavior
• Consequences of behavior, i.e. reinforcement or punishment, is learned

Operant Behavior

• Most behaviors are operant, where stimuli does not matter, but the consequences do
• Consequences involve reinforcement or punishment

Positive and Negative Reinforcement

• Reinforcement increases the probability of a response occurring
• Positive reinforcement is when a desirable event or stimulus is presented as a consequence of a behavior, which increases said behavior
• Negative reinforcement is when an undesirable event or stimulus is removed or prevented from happening as a consequence of a behavior, which increases said behavior

Positive & Negative Punishment

• Punishment decreases the probability of a response occurring
• Positive punishment is when an undesirable event or stimulus is presented as a consequence of a behavior to decreases said behavior
• Negative punishment occurs when something is removed or prevented from happening as a consequence of a behavior to decrease said behavior

Math Implications

• Positive reinforcement and positive punishment involve addition
• Negative reinforcement, and negative punishment involve subtraction

ABC's of Behavior

• Antecedents are triggers that are either internal or external, such as time of day, people, physical setting or activities
• Antecedents determine function - avoid/escape, attention seeking
• Consequences involve reinforcement (strengthens) and punishment (weakens)
• Habits are formed in a loop of cue, routine, and reward

Operant Conditioning Application of Behavior

• Operant conditioning used in Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT), cognitive restructuring and exposure therapy

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Ratio schedule is dependent on the number of responses
• Interval schedule is based on the interval of time passed
• Fixed schedule has no variation in reinforcement presentation
• Variable schedule has some variation in reinforcement presentation

Response Acquisition

• The ease of acquisition of intermittent reinforcement schedules is ranked: continuous, fixed, then variable
• The ease of extinction ranked: Continuous, fixed, variable

Spontaneous Recovery Summary

• Extinction is not forgetting

Social Cognitive Theory

• Learning social behaviors takes place via imitation or observational learning, where operant conditioning also applies
• Acting on the environment where behaviors reinforce each other has a touch of cognition
• This is Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

Social Cogitive Theory - General Principles

• Learning occurs via observation, and is a mental change
• Cognitive processes must include attention and memory
• Awareness of response contingencies applies
• Understanding outcome expectations is necessary - hypotheses of what future actions will bring. as well as incentive motivation
• Efficacy expectations involve one's belief in their ability to perform behaviors
• Personal agency involves the ability to act consciously and with intention

Effective Models

• Competence
• Prestige and Power
• Similarity to the observer in terms of physical or emotional nature
• Behaviour of model is relevant to observer's situation

Observational Learning - 4 Processes

• (1) Attentional Processes - requires the observer must actively watch the model when performing the task. The task must be distinctive and important to the observer
• (2) Retention Processes states that the observer must remember what was observed through mentally replaying the actions, verbalizing the steps
• (3) Motor Reproduction Processes states that imitating requires transforming visually or verbally represented actions into actual behaviors, where successful reproduction of motor sequences requires monitoring and evaluating, plus improving behaviors
  • One also needs the ability and opportunity to engage in behavior
• (4) Motivational Processes expects reinforcement and self-efficacy

Reinforcement in Imitation

• Reinforcement can be Direct by the model, or by others (not model), and it leads to a consequence of the imitated behavior

Vicarious Effects on Imitation

• Bandura's Bobo doll study highlights vicarious effects on imitation
• Imitator is not reinforced directly
• Models that are imitated reinforce their own behavior
• Imitators are not punished directly

Inhibition and Imitation

• The inhibitory effect refrains someone from a deviant behavior because they observed a model's punishment
• The disinhibitory effect engages an individual in a previously inhibited deviant behavior because they observed a model's reinforcement

Reciprocal Causation

• Behavior, the person, and the environment mutually influence/ change each other
• The cycle of influence affects Observable action and other reactions
• One's Physical or Mental state can affect this

Self-Efficacy Implications

• Self-efficacy relies on ones own estimates of competence and effectiveness which has a relationship to reciprocal causation
• High achievement contributes to high self-efficacy, this is also true in reverse

Self-Regulation Characteristics

• There is an understanding of setting standards and goals
• Consideration of what is good and what needs improvement
• Self-evaluation
• Adjustment of goals and behaviors

Learned Behaviors - Regulation and Processes

• People learn behaviors through a series of cognitive stages
• Influencing, modifying, and controlling behaviors and thoughts/feelings is self-regulation