Questions and Answers
What does reinforcement do to the likelihood of a behavior occurring again?
Which of the following is an example of positive reinforcement?
What type of punishment is exemplified when a mother makes her daughter do extra chores for missing curfew?
What outcome is associated with negative punishment?
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How did Skinner contribute to behaviorism?
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What does spontaneous recovery indicate about learned responses?
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What is the primary principle underlying Thorndike's law of effect?
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In high-order conditioning, what becomes a second conditioned stimulus?
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What does the concept of vicarious conditioning suggest?
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What happens to a conditioned response during the extinction process?
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What is a conditioned emotional response (CER)?
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How does stimulus substitution explain classical conditioning?
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What is the expected result if a pleasurable action is followed by an unpleasant consequence, according to Thorndike’s law of effect?
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What defines learning in the context provided?
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What does the term 'unconditioned stimulus' refer to?
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In Pavlov's experiment, what is the conditioned response?
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Which principle of classical conditioning states that the conditioned stimulus must occur before the unconditioned stimulus?
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What does stimulus generalization refer to?
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What typically happens during the process of stimulus discrimination?
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How often must a neutral stimulus be paired with an unconditioned stimulus for effective conditioning?
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In the context of Pavlov's work, what is the difference between an unconditioned response and a conditioned response?
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Which of the following describes the concept of acquisition in classical conditioning?
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What is a characteristic of the conditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?
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What is the primary difference between continuous reinforcement and partial reinforcement?
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Which type of reinforcement schedule provides a reinforcer after an unpredictable number of responses?
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How does spontaneous recovery manifest in operant conditioning?
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Which concept refers to the ability to remember an auditory stimulus long enough to understand what was said?
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What is the purpose of selective attention in memory processing?
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What occurs during the encoding process in memory?
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Which statement best describes the process of generalization in operant conditioning?
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What is a key characteristic of fixed-interval reinforcement schedules?
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What is the primary function of working memory?
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Which component of working memory is responsible for holding verbal and auditory information?
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What is elaborative rehearsal?
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Which retrieval method requires very few external cues?
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Which of the following enhances memory retention through similarity during recall?
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What term describes the phenomenon where old information interferes with new information?
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What is the maximum capacity of short-term memory commonly referred to as?
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Which strategy is NOT effective for improving memory?
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What cognitive system is fast, automatic, and intuitive?
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What is the primary outcome of the consolidation process in memory?
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What do we call the phenomenon where people remember information best from the beginning and end of a list?
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Which of the following is considered a heuristic in decision-making?
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What can lead to base rate neglect in decision making?
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Study Notes
Learning
- Permanent behavioral change caused by experience and practice, distinct from maturation.
- Involves physical changes in the brain, especially concerning memory formation.
Classical Conditioning
- Learning to respond reflexively to a new stimulus.
- Ivan Pavlov's experiment illustrated this through dogs salivating in response to food.
- Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Naturally occurring stimulus causing an involuntary response.
- Unconditioned Response (UR): Automatic reaction to the US, genetically wired into the nervous system.
- Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Initially neutral stimulus that becomes associated with the US through repeated pairing.
- Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to the CS, typically weaker than the UR.
Pavlov’s Experiment
- Used dogs to demonstrate classical conditioning by pairing a metronome (CS) with food (US) to achieve salivation (CR).
Little Albert Experiment
- US: Loud noise -> UR: Startle response.
- CS: White rat paired with US -> Startle.
- Result: Little Albert developed a fear of the rat (CR) due to the loud noise associated with it.
Principles of Classical Conditioning
- CS must precede US.
- Closely timed pairing enhances learning speed.
- Neutral stimuli must be consistently paired with US.
- Distinctiveness of CS helps in the conditioning process.
Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination
- Generalization: Responding similarly to stimuli that resemble the CS.
- Discrimination: Ability to distinguish between CS and similar, irrelevant stimuli.
Extinction and Recovery
- Extinction: Gradual loss of CR when the CS is presented without the US.
- Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of an extinguished CR after a rest period.
Conditioned Emotional Response
- Emotional responses conditioned to stimuli, applicable in situations like advertising.
Vicarious Conditioning
- Learning via observing others' reactions, often faster when the response is evolutionarily beneficial.
High-Order Conditioning
- Occurs when a strong CS is paired with a neutral stimulus, making the latter a second CS.
Operant Conditioning
- Learning behaviors based on their consequences.
- Thorndike’s Law of Effect: Actions followed by pleasurable outcomes are likely to be repeated; unpleasant outcomes deter repetition.
Reinforcement and Punishment
- Reinforcement: Increases likelihood of behavior repetition, can be positive or negative.
- Positive Reinforcement: Adding a stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., praise).
- Negative Punishment: Removing a stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., taking away a privilege).
Reinforcement Schedules
- Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcement provided after every response.
-
Partial Reinforcement: Given after some responses, more resistant to extinction.
- Fixed-Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses.
- Variable-Ratio: Reinforcement after varying responses.
- Fixed-Interval: Reinforcement after a fixed time.
- Variable-Interval: Reinforcement after variable time intervals.
Basic Operant Conditioning Processes
- Extinction: Weakened response due to lack of reinforcement.
- Generalization: Similar responses to related stimuli.
- Discrimination: Learning to respond differently to various stimuli.
- Spontaneous Recovery: Performing a previously extinguished response.
Observational Learning
- Learning behaviors by watching others model those behaviors.
Cognitive Limits to Behaviorism
- Insight learning involves suddenly understanding a problem's relationships, not achieved through trial and error alone.
Memory
- Active system for receiving, organizing, storing, and retrieving information.
Stages of Memory
- Sensory Memory: Initial information entry through senses; includes iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) memory.
- Short-Term Memory (STM): Temporary awareness of information, typically lasting 15-20 seconds.
- Working Memory: Active processing system that manipulates information in STM.
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
- Unlimited capacity for permanent information storage, organized in neural networks.
- Elaborative Rehearsal: Making information meaningful for storage improvement.
- Consolidation: Process solidifying new memories into long-term storage.
Retrieval of Memory
- Recall: Retrieving information with minimal cues; more challenging.
- Recognition: Identifying matched information; easier than recall.
- Matching Encoding and Retrieval: Memory improves when encoding and recall conditions align.
Forgetting
- Encoding Errors: Not fully learned information leads to perceived forgetting.
- Proactive Interference: Old information hinders new learning.
- Retroactive Interference: New information disrupts recall of old information.
Improving Memory
- Strategies: Distributed practice, elaborative rehearsal, sufficient sleep, physical exercise, active testing.
- Ineffective strategies: Reading and re-reading, highlighting, multitasking with distractions like music.
Thinking, Judgment, and Decision Making
- System 1: Fast, automatic, emotional processing.
- System 2: Slow, deliberate, logical thinking.
- Heuristics: Effort-saving rules; representativeness and availability heuristics can lead to errors in decision making.
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Description
Explore the key concepts of learning and classical conditioning, as introduced by Ivan Pavlov. This quiz covers how behavior can be changed through experience and the physical changes in the brain related to memory. Test your understanding of reflex responses to stimuli and the distinction between learning and maturation.
