Chemistry Chapter on pH and Acid Rain

Unit 1 - Biology: Chapter 1 - Atoms

• Physical properties are characteristics that can be observed or measured without changing the chemical identity of a substance.
• Chemical properties describe a substance's ability to undergo chemical changes or reactions.
• Physical changes alter the appearance or form of a substance without changing its chemical composition.
• Chemical changes alter the chemical composition of a substance, creating new substances.

Unit 1 - Biology: Chapter 1 - Atoms: Atom Structure & Notation

• Electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom and are negatively charged.
• Protons are found in the nucleus and are positively charged.
• Neutrons are found in the nucleus and are neutrally charged.
• Atomic Number (Z): The number of protons in an atom's nucleus. For example, gold has an atomic number of 79.
• Atomic Mass: The number of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus. For example Fluorine has an atomic number of 9 and a mass of 19.
• Neutrons are calculated by subtracting the atomic number from the atomic mass.

Unit 1 - Biology: Chapter 1 - Atoms: Molecular Compounds

• This section covers molecular compounds and is potentially on a final exam.

Unit 1 - Biology: Chapter 1 - Atoms: Polyatomic Ions

• Polyatomic ions are stable groups of atoms held together that behave like a single ionic particle.
• The entire charge in a polyatomic ion is shared by all atoms.
• Criss-cross method is used.
• Charges should be used correctly.
• Brackets should be used correctly.

Chapter 2 - Equations: Conservation of Mass

• The Law of Conservation of Mass states that matter is neither created nor destroyed.

Chapter 2 - Equations: Types of Reactions

• Synthesis: 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O₂
• Decomposition: CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂
• Single Displacement: Zn + CuSO₄ → ZnSO₄ + Cu
• Double Displacement: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O
• Combustion: C₂H₃ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O

Chapter 3 - Acids and Bases

• Acids react with metals and carbonates, conduct electricity, turn blue litmus paper red, and neutralize bases.
• Acids taste sour.
• All acids release at least one hydrogen ion (H⁺) when they dissolve in water. Example: HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq).
• Acids have H in front of their formula.
• Two common groups of acids are binary and oxyacids.

Chapter 3 - Acids and Bases: pH Scale

• pH measures how acidic or basic a solution is.
• The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.
• A pH of 7 is neutral.
• A pH less than 7 is acidic; the lower the number, the more acidic.
• A pH greater than 7 is basic; the higher the number, the more basic.

Chapter 3 - Acids and Bases: Neutralization Reactions

• Neutralization reactions occur when an acid and a base react to form products with a pH closer to 7.
• The products are typically an ionic compound (salt) and water.

Chapter 3 - Acids and Bases: Acid Precipitation

• Acid precipitation is any precipitation (rain, snow, or fog) that becomes acidic from reacting with atmospheric compounds (like SO₂ and nitrogen oxides).
• Many industrial processes release chemicals like SO₂ into the air.
• These compounds mix with water in the atmosphere and form acids that fall to Earth.
• Example: Acid rain can have a pH below 5.6

Chapter 1 - Cells: Plant and Animal Cells

• Prokaryotes: Cells that do not contain a nucleus (e.g., bacteria).
• Eukaryotes: Cells that contain a nucleus (e.g., animals, plants, fungi, protists).

Chapter 1 - Cells: Importance of Cell Division

• Reproduction and growth depend on cell division.
• Three crucial aspects of cell division are Reproduction, Growth, and Repair.

Chapter 1 - Cells: Cell Cycle (KNOW THE DRAWINGS)

• Interphase
• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase
• Cytokinesis, where cells physically split into two cells.

Chapter 1 - Cancer

• Cancer is a group of diseases in which cells grow and divide uncontrollably.
• Tumors can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous).
• Malignant tumors can spread (metastasize).

Chapter 2 - Body Systems: Digestive System

• The digestive system processes food for absorption.
• Starts in the mouth with saliva (for carbohydrate breakdown)
• Continues in the stomach and small intestine, using acid and enzymes.
• Food is physically and chemically digested and moved along the passage.
• Different regions have different functions in the digestive system.
• The large and small intestine are two major parts of the digestive system, and work together to efficiently absorb nutrients.
• There are several accessory organs involved in different stages of the digestion process. (i.e., salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder).

Chapter 2 - Body Systems: Circulation System

• The circulatory system involves the heart, blood, and blood vessels.
• The function of circulating blood involves getting oxygen to cells, taking CO2 away from cells, and transporting nutrients, wastes, and cells throughout the body.
• Plasma is the fluid component of blood, containing various types of proteins, dissolved gases, and nutrients.
• Red blood cells carry oxygen.
• White blood cells fight infection.
• Platelets aid in clotting.

Chapter 2 - Body Systems: Respiration System

• The respiratory system involves the nasal and oral cavities, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli.
• Air enters through the nasal or oral passages, travels through the pharynx, and into the trachea.
• From the trachea air branches into bronchi then bronchioles.
• The alveoli are tiny sacs where gas exchange occurs.

Chapter 2 - Body Systems: The Nervous System

• The nervous system controls and coordinates bodily functions. Central nervous system (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord, and peripheral nervous system (PNS) controls voluntary and involuntary functions.
• The brain and spinal cord send and receive messages, sending out responses based on inputs from the body and external environment. Nerves carry messages between the organs.

Chapter 2 - Body Systems: System Interactions

• The digestive, circulatory, respiratory, and nervous systems interact to maintain optimal functionality for the body. Nutrients are broken down by the digestive system then travel to the rest of the body via the circulatory system, and oxygen is delivered to cells by the respiration system controlled by the nerve signals sent from the nervous system.

Chapter 3 - Plant Systems

• Plant systems are made up of roots, shoot systems, which include stems, leaves, flowers and more.

Chapter 3 - Plant Tissues

• Meristematic tissue divides and grows the plant.
• Dermal tissue protects and holds moisture.
• Ground tissue is used for storage and support.
• Vascular tissue transports materials through the plant.