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Questions and Answers
What type of cells undergo mitosis?
What type of cells undergo mitosis?
Which phase of the cell cycle is primarily associated with DNA replication?
Which phase of the cell cycle is primarily associated with DNA replication?
What is produced as a result of meiosis?
What is produced as a result of meiosis?
During which phase does a cell rest before division occurs?
During which phase does a cell rest before division occurs?
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Which of the following terms best describes an organism that has two identical alleles for a trait?
Which of the following terms best describes an organism that has two identical alleles for a trait?
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What is the result of one round of mitosis in terms of chromosome numbers in daughter cells?
What is the result of one round of mitosis in terms of chromosome numbers in daughter cells?
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What is the main role of the centromere during cell division?
What is the main role of the centromere during cell division?
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How many haploid cells are produced at the end of meiosis?
How many haploid cells are produced at the end of meiosis?
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During which phase of mitosis are sister chromatids separated?
During which phase of mitosis are sister chromatids separated?
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What is the chromosomal composition of human gametes after meiosis?
What is the chromosomal composition of human gametes after meiosis?
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What does recombination involve during meiosis?
What does recombination involve during meiosis?
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What structure forms when homologous chromosomes pair during meiosis?
What structure forms when homologous chromosomes pair during meiosis?
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What is the main purpose of independent assortment during meiosis?
What is the main purpose of independent assortment during meiosis?
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What happens to primary oocytes in fetal ovaries during meiosis?
What happens to primary oocytes in fetal ovaries during meiosis?
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How does the process of meiosis differ from mitosis?
How does the process of meiosis differ from mitosis?
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How many different alignments can three pairs of homologous chromosomes produce during meiosis?
How many different alignments can three pairs of homologous chromosomes produce during meiosis?
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What initiates the continuous formation of human sperm?
What initiates the continuous formation of human sperm?
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What is a key result of crossing over during meiosis?
What is a key result of crossing over during meiosis?
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What is the genotype ratio resulting from a cross between two heterozygous pea plants (Rr x Rr)?
What is the genotype ratio resulting from a cross between two heterozygous pea plants (Rr x Rr)?
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Which type of genetic defects follows simple Mendelian inheritance patterns?
Which type of genetic defects follows simple Mendelian inheritance patterns?
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Which of the following patterns is NOT a category of Mendelian inheritance?
Which of the following patterns is NOT a category of Mendelian inheritance?
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What can be identified within families to study genetic traits and diseases?
What can be identified within families to study genetic traits and diseases?
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Which of the following statements is true regarding disease genotype and phenotype?
Which of the following statements is true regarding disease genotype and phenotype?
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What does recombination involve during meiosis?
What does recombination involve during meiosis?
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What is a key characteristic of haploid gametes?
What is a key characteristic of haploid gametes?
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What defines an allele in genetic terms?
What defines an allele in genetic terms?
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Which genotype represents a heterozygote?
Which genotype represents a heterozygote?
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Which term describes the physical appearance of an organism?
Which term describes the physical appearance of an organism?
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During what phase of meiosis does recombination occur?
During what phase of meiosis does recombination occur?
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What occurs if mistakes happen during recombination or mitosis?
What occurs if mistakes happen during recombination or mitosis?
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What happens during fertilization?
What happens during fertilization?
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What is the outcome of mitosis in somatic cells?
What is the outcome of mitosis in somatic cells?
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During which phase of the cell cycle does the cell prepare for division?
During which phase of the cell cycle does the cell prepare for division?
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Which of the following best describes meiosis?
Which of the following best describes meiosis?
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What happens during the synthesis phase of the cell cycle?
What happens during the synthesis phase of the cell cycle?
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Which of the following statements about the G0 phase is true?
Which of the following statements about the G0 phase is true?
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What is the genotype ratio of the progeny resulting from a cross between two heterozygous pea plants (Rr x Rr)?
What is the genotype ratio of the progeny resulting from a cross between two heterozygous pea plants (Rr x Rr)?
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Which category of genetic defects involves interactions of several genes and follows a complex inheritance pattern?
Which category of genetic defects involves interactions of several genes and follows a complex inheritance pattern?
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Which pattern of inheritance includes both autosomal and X-linked forms?
Which pattern of inheritance includes both autosomal and X-linked forms?
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What is the primary method used to identify inherited diseases in families?
What is the primary method used to identify inherited diseases in families?
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In the context of inherited diseases, what does the term 'disease phenotype' refer to?
In the context of inherited diseases, what does the term 'disease phenotype' refer to?
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What is the ploidy level of the resulting daughter cells after one round of mitosis?
What is the ploidy level of the resulting daughter cells after one round of mitosis?
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What happens to chromosomes that lack a centromere during mitosis?
What happens to chromosomes that lack a centromere during mitosis?
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What characterizes the result of DNA replication in preparation for mitosis?
What characterizes the result of DNA replication in preparation for mitosis?
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During meiosis, how many haploid cells are produced from one diploid cell?
During meiosis, how many haploid cells are produced from one diploid cell?
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Which of the following statements about sister chromatids is correct?
Which of the following statements about sister chromatids is correct?
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What is the structure formed when homologous chromosomes pair during meiosis?
What is the structure formed when homologous chromosomes pair during meiosis?
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Which of the following processes contributes to genetic diversity in meiosis?
Which of the following processes contributes to genetic diversity in meiosis?
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What is the outcome of random segregation during meiosis?
What is the outcome of random segregation during meiosis?
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How many different ways can 23 pairs of chromosomes align during meiosis?
How many different ways can 23 pairs of chromosomes align during meiosis?
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What phase may primary oocytes remain in after fetal development?
What phase may primary oocytes remain in after fetal development?
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What is a key difference in the formation of eggs and sperm in humans?
What is a key difference in the formation of eggs and sperm in humans?
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During meiosis, what is the primary role of the mitotic spindle?
During meiosis, what is the primary role of the mitotic spindle?
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What happens during recombination in meiosis?
What happens during recombination in meiosis?
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What are the possible combinations of paternal homologs based on the formula $2^{23}$?
What are the possible combinations of paternal homologs based on the formula $2^{23}$?
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Which term describes an organism's genetic constitution?
Which term describes an organism's genetic constitution?
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In which cell division process does recombination normally not occur?
In which cell division process does recombination normally not occur?
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What characterizes alleles within a gene in a population?
What characterizes alleles within a gene in a population?
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What defines a recessive trait in genetics?
What defines a recessive trait in genetics?
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What is the outcome if non-disjunction occurs during meiosis?
What is the outcome if non-disjunction occurs during meiosis?
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What primarily determines an organism's phenotype?
What primarily determines an organism's phenotype?
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Which of the following statements about the cell cycle phases is accurate?
Which of the following statements about the cell cycle phases is accurate?
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What is the primary consequence of meiosis in terms of genetic material?
What is the primary consequence of meiosis in terms of genetic material?
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In which way do meiotic division and cellular differentiation differ fundamentally?
In which way do meiotic division and cellular differentiation differ fundamentally?
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Which term correctly describes the state of a cell in the G0 phase?
Which term correctly describes the state of a cell in the G0 phase?
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Which of the following statements about genetic terms is true?
Which of the following statements about genetic terms is true?
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What is the expected phenotype ratio of progeny from a cross between two heterozygous pea plants (Rr x Rr)?
What is the expected phenotype ratio of progeny from a cross between two heterozygous pea plants (Rr x Rr)?
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Which type of genetic defect follows complex (non-Mendelian) inheritance patterns?
Which type of genetic defect follows complex (non-Mendelian) inheritance patterns?
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Which method is primarily used to trace inheritance patterns of diseases within families?
Which method is primarily used to trace inheritance patterns of diseases within families?
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What defines a monogenic defect in terms of inheritance?
What defines a monogenic defect in terms of inheritance?
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Which of the following is true for autosomal dominant inheritance?
Which of the following is true for autosomal dominant inheritance?
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What is the primary reason chromosomes lacking a centromere fail to segregate properly during cell division?
What is the primary reason chromosomes lacking a centromere fail to segregate properly during cell division?
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Which of the following statements accurately describes the outcome of a single round of DNA replication followed by mitosis?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the outcome of a single round of DNA replication followed by mitosis?
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During which specific phase of the cell cycle are sister chromatids separated from each other?
During which specific phase of the cell cycle are sister chromatids separated from each other?
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In the context of genetic organization, how are chromosomes structured before cell division?
In the context of genetic organization, how are chromosomes structured before cell division?
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Which process specifically reduces the number of chromosome sets from diploid to haploid during gamete formation?
Which process specifically reduces the number of chromosome sets from diploid to haploid during gamete formation?
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What is a key process contributing to genetic diversity during meiosis I?
What is a key process contributing to genetic diversity during meiosis I?
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Which statement accurately describes the formation of primary oocytes?
Which statement accurately describes the formation of primary oocytes?
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What structural feature describes a bivalent during meiosis?
What structural feature describes a bivalent during meiosis?
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In terms of genetic alignment, how many different configurations can 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes produce during meiosis?
In terms of genetic alignment, how many different configurations can 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes produce during meiosis?
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Which outcome occurs in the meiotic divisions of spermatogenesis?
Which outcome occurs in the meiotic divisions of spermatogenesis?
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What is the primary outcome of recombination during meiosis?
What is the primary outcome of recombination during meiosis?
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What is the significance of independent assortment in meiosis?
What is the significance of independent assortment in meiosis?
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Which statement accurately describes a heterozygote?
Which statement accurately describes a heterozygote?
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During which phase does genetic recombination primarily occur in meiosis?
During which phase does genetic recombination primarily occur in meiosis?
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How are chromatids separated during meiosis compared to mitosis?
How are chromatids separated during meiosis compared to mitosis?
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What phase of meiosis is characterized by the alignment of bivalents at the metaphase plate?
What phase of meiosis is characterized by the alignment of bivalents at the metaphase plate?
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What role do alleles play in genetic variation within a population?
What role do alleles play in genetic variation within a population?
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How does the phenotype of an organism relate to its genotype?
How does the phenotype of an organism relate to its genotype?
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What are the possible outcomes if non-disjunction occurs during meiosis?
What are the possible outcomes if non-disjunction occurs during meiosis?
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What is a key difference between genetic recombination during meiosis and during mitosis?
What is a key difference between genetic recombination during meiosis and during mitosis?
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Which of the following accurately describes the concept of polymorphism in genetics?
Which of the following accurately describes the concept of polymorphism in genetics?
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Study Notes
Cell division
- Vital for development and growth.
- Occurs through mitosis in somatic cells, producing two identical daughter cells.
- Involves duplication of DNA, resulting in diploid cells.
- Meiosis occurs in germ cells, producing gametes (sperm and egg cells).
- Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid.
Cell cycle phases
- G1 (Gap 1): Cell growth and preparation for DNA replication. Occurs prior to cell division.
- S (Synthesis): DNA replication phase.
- G2 (Gap 2): Short resting phase prior to mitosis, preparing the cell for division.
- M (Mitosis): Cell division process, dividing the replicated genome into two daughter cells.
- G0 (Gap zero): Non-replicative phase. Many differentiated cells remain in G0.
Humans
- Have 23 pairs of chromosomes, including 22 autosomes plus sex chromosomes.
-
Sex chromosomes:
- XX: female
- XY: male
Mitosis
- Duplicates the genome accurately and divides it between daughter cells.
- DNA is copied once, followed by one cell division, resulting in two diploid daughter cells.
- Involves sister chromatids: identical copies of DNA held together by a centromere.
- Each sister chromatid contains one original and one newly synthesized DNA strand.
Stages of mitosis
- Prophase: Chromosomes condense and become visible; spindle fibers form.
- Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate, attached to spindle fibers.
- Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate and move towards opposite poles of the cell.
- Telophase: Chromosomes reach the poles, nuclear envelope reforms, and cytokinesis (cell division) starts.
Meiosis
- Reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid.
- Involves two successive divisions, meiosis I and meiosis II.
- Prophase I:
- Leptotene: Chromosomes start to condense.
- Zygotene: Homologous chromosomes pair up (synapsis).
- Pachytene: Crossing over occurs between homologous chromosomes.
- Diplotene: Homologous chromosomes start to separate but remain attached at chiasmata where crossing over occurred.
- Diakinesis: Chromosomes condense further and the nuclear envelope breaks down.
- Metaphase I: Homologous pairs line up at the metaphase plate.
- Anaphase I: Homologous chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles of the cell.
- Telophase I: Chromosomes reach the poles, nuclear envelope reforms, and cytokinesis occurs.
- Meiosis II: Similar to mitosis, but starts with haploid cells. Sister chromatids separate, resulting in four haploid daughter cells.
Genetic variation
- Independent assortment: Random alignment of homologous chromosomes at metaphase I.
- Recombination (crossing over): Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during prophase I, resulting in chromosomes with new combinations of alleles.
Basic terminology
- Diploid (2n): Two copies of each chromosome (one from each parent).
- Haploid (n): Only one copy of each chromosome.
- Allele: Different versions of a gene, which determine a specific trait.
- Genotype: The genetic makeup of an individual, represented by the combination of alleles.
- Phenotype: The observable physical characteristics of an individual, determined by their genotype.
- Homozygote: Two identical alleles for a gene.
- Heterozygote: Two different alleles for a gene.
- Dominant: An allele that masks the effect of a recessive allele.
- Recessive: An allele whose effect is masked by a dominant allele.
Mendelian inheritance
- Describes the inheritance of traits controlled by single genes with dominant and recessive alleles.
- Example: Round (R) versus wrinkled (r) peas.
- Cross Rr x Rr leads to a phenotype ratio of 3:1 (3 round, 1 wrinkled).
Human inherited diseases
- Can be caused by genetic defects, either single-gene or multi-gene.
- Single-gene (monogenic): Due to a single defective allele, inherited in a simple Mendelian pattern.
- Multi-gene (polygenic): Resulting from interactions of multiple genes, having complex inheritance patterns.
- Pedigree analysis: Used to track the inheritance of traits and diseases in families, helping to identify disease patterns and modes of inheritance.
Cell Division
- Cell division is essential for development & generating new cells in adults
- Somatic cells divide through mitosis.
- Mitosis occurs as part of the cell cycle.
- Diploid cells result in diploid cells.
- Diploid cells have 2 sets of chromosomes; One set from the mother and one set from the father.
- Meiosis is a specialized form of cell division for sperm & egg cell production.
- Diploid cells result in haploid cells.
- Haploid cells are gametes (sperm & egg), they have one set of chromosomes.
Phases of the Cell Cycle
- The cell cycle consists of: G1, S, G2, and M phases (mitosis).
- G1 (Growth 1): This is a period of cell growth and preparation for cell division.
- S (Synthesis): DNA replication
- G2 (Growth 2): A short resting phase before cell division.
- M (Mitosis): Cell division occurs.
- G0: Non-replicative phase, a resting state that can be entered by differentiated cells, for example, hepatocytes.
Human Chromosomes
- Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, 22 autosomes + 1 pair of sex chromosomes.
- Sex-determining chromosomes: XX = female, XY = male
Mitosis
- Essential for cell division & growth.
- Mitosis is one sector of the cell cycle; describes the process of duplicated genomes getting segregated.
- Chromosomal DNA is copied once within the cell.
- The cell then divides once to produce two daughter cells.
- All daughter cells are diploid (2n).
Mitotic Spindle
- Spindle fibers form during cell division, pulling chromosomes to opposite poles.
- The centromere is crucial for proper chromosome segregation.
- Acentric fragments (lacking centromere) don't attach to the spindle which results in their loss during daughter cell formation.
DNA Replication in Mitosis
- End result of DNA replication: two identical DNA molecules, each containing one old and one new strand.
- Both new DNA molecules have the same sequence on each strand.
- Individual DNA molecules form sister chromatids (identical chromosomes).
- These sister chromatids are separated during anaphase, ensuring each daughter cell gets a complete copy of the DNA.
- After separation, each chromatid is referred to as a chromosome.
- Each daughter cell inherits a full copy of the genetic information from the parent cell.
Meiosis
- A specialized form of cell division responsible for the production of gametes (sperm & egg).
- Meiosis reduces diploid (2n) cells to haploid (n) cells.
- Two meiotic divisions occur, resulting in four haploid cells.
- Recombination: Exchange between maternal and paternal chromosomes (homologs) occurs.
- Bivalent/Tetrad formation: 4 stranded structure (2 chromatids x 2 homologous chromosomes)
Meiosis I
- During Prophase I, pairing of homologous chromosomes occurs: Bivalent/Tetrad formation.
- Bivalents align at the metaphase plate in Meiosis I.
- Spindle fibers pull one complete chromosome (2 chromatids) to either pole.
- Random segregation of maternal and paternal chromosomes contributes to independent assortment.
Division without Replication
- Meiosis II is essentially a mitotic division that follows Meiosis I.
- Unlike Mitosis, DNA replication does NOT occur before Meiosis II.
- The result is four haploid cells, each with a single set of chromosomes.
Egg and Sperm Formation
- Egg formation: Starts in the fetal ovaries, arrests during prophase of Meiosis I.
- Oocytes remain arrested in diplotene of Meiosis I until ovulation.
- Only one of the four daughter cells becomes a functional egg (ovum).
- Sperm formation: Occurs continuously in the testes after puberty.
- Primary spermatocytes undergo meiotic divisions, creating sperm cells.
Comparing Mitosis & Meiosis
| Feature | Mitosis | Meiosis |
|---|---|---|
| Number of Divisions | 1 | 2 |
| Daughter Cells | 2 | 4 |
| Ploidy | Diploid (2n) | Haploid (n) |
| Chromosome Duplication | 1 before division | 1 before Meiosis I |
| Recombination | Does NOT occur | Occurs during Prophase I |
Mechanisms of Variation
- Two main processes contribute to genetic diversity:
- Independent assortment: During Meiosis I, homologous chromosomes are randomly divided.
- Recombination: Crossing over (physical exchange of genetic material) between non-sister chromatids occurs during Prophase I.
Genetic Terminology
- Diploid cells: Two homologous copies of each chromosome (one maternal + one paternal)
- Allele: Each gene copy within a chromosome.
- Genotype: Genetic makeup (AA, aa, Aa)
- Phenotype: Physical appearance (healthy or disease)
- Homozygote: Two identical alleles for a particular gene (AA or aa)
- Heterozygote: Two different alleles for a particular gene (Aa)
- Dominant allele: Determines the phenotype even when present with the recessive version.
- Recessive allele: Only determines the phenotype when paired with another recessive allele.
Mendelian Inheritance
- Single-gene defects: Affect a single gene, with either dominant or recessive inheritance patterns.
- Multi-gene (polygenic) defects: Result from interactions of multiple genes, with complex inheritance patterns different from Mendelian.
Human Inherited Diseases
- Diseases can be caused by genetic defects within DNA.
- They can be categorized as either:
- Single-gene (monogenic) defects: Follow Mendelian inheritance patterns.
- Multi-gene (polygenic) defects: Involve interactions of several genes.
- Pedigree analysis: Can help identify the inheritance pattern of traits in families.
Cell Division
- Cell division is essential for growth and development.
- In somatic cells, division occurs by mitosis, resulting in two diploid cells.
- Meiosis is a specialized form of cell division that produces sperm and egg cells, resulting in haploid cells.
Cell Cycle Phases
- G1 Phase: A period of cell growth and preparation for cell division.
- S Phase: The "synthesis" phase where DNA replication occurs.
- G2 Phase: A short resting phase before cell division.
- Mitosis: The process of cell division.
- G0 Phase: A non-replicative phase where cells may remain, such as hepatocytes.
Human Chromosomes
- Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes: 22 autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes.
- XX chromosomes determine female sex.
- XY chromosomes determine male sex.
Mitosis
- Mitosis is a process of cell division that ensures each daughter cell receives a full copy of the parental cell's genetic information.
- DNA is copied once during mitosis, resulting in 92 chromosomes.
- The cell then divides once, resulting in two cells each with 46 chromosomes.
- The mitotic spindle is essential for chromosome segregation.
- Centromeres are crucial for attaching chromosomes to the spindle.
- Acentric fragments (lacking centromeres) are not passed to daughter cells.
Meiosis
- Meiosis reduces diploid cells to haploid cells.
- Meiosis involves two rounds of division: Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
- Prophase I of meiosis I includes recombination, where maternal and paternal chromosomes exchange genetic material.
- Bivalents, or tetrads, are formed in Prophase I, consisting of four chromatids from two homologous chromosomes.
- During Metaphase I, bivalents line up at the metaphase plate.
- Spindle fibers pull complete chromosomes (2 chromatids) to opposite poles, resulting in independent assortment of maternal and paternal chromosomes.
- Division without replication occurs in Meiosis II.
- Meiosis in females begins in the fetal ovaries and is arrested in prophase I.
- Only one of the four cells produced by meiosis serves as the functional gamete (ovum).
- Meiosis in males occurs continuously after puberty.
Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis
- Mitosis produces two identical daughter cells with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
- Meiosis produces four genetically distinct daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
- Mitosis is involved in growth and repair.
- Meiosis is involved in sexual reproduction.
Mechanisms of Variation
- Independent assortment: The random segregation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis I.
- Recombination by crossing over: The exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis I.
Basic Terminology
- Diploid: Having two sets of chromosomes.
- Haploid: Having one set of chromosomes.
- Allele: A variant form of a gene.
- Genotype: The genetic makeup of an individual.
- Phenotype: The observable characteristics of an individual.
- Homozygote: Having two identical alleles of a gene.
- Heterozygote: Having two different alleles of a gene.
- Dominant: An allele that masks the expression of the recessive allele.
- Recessive: An allele that is masked by the dominant allele.
Mendelian Inheritance
- Simple Mendelian inheritance involves single genes.
- Recessive traits are often masked by dominant alleles.
- The phenotype ratio for a cross between two heterozygotes is typically 3:1.
Human Inherited Diseases
- Some diseases are caused by genetic defects.
- Single-gene (monogenic) defects follow simple Mendelian inheritance patterns.
- Multi-gene (polygenic) defects involve interactions of multiple genes and have complex inheritance patterns.
- Pedigree analysis is used to identify patterns of inheritance in families.
- Some diseases are autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, X-linked dominant, or X-linked recessive.
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Description
Explore the critical processes of cell division and the cell cycle, including mitosis and meiosis. Understand how these processes contribute to growth, development, and genetic variation in humans. This quiz covers key phases and chromosome details pertinent to both somatic and germ cells.
