Caste System and Colonial India

Part II: Indians Challenge the British Raj

• Queen Victoria's proclamation initiated a century of significant social and political change in India, driven by British reforms, industrialization, and war efforts, often prioritizing their own interests.
• The British were primarily focused on the economic and military value of India, showing little concern for the impact of these changes on Indian communities and people.
• Indians responded by demanding rights and eventually, freedom.
• Part II details life under British rule ("Raj") and Indian calls for change, examining how class, religion, and region influenced the Indian groups in their resistance to British rule in the subcontinent.
• This part also outlines the impact of global events on the Indian debate on governance and representation.

Part II Definitions

• Peasants: Primarily lived in rural areas, relying on agriculture for their livelihood. They formed the majority of the population during British rule.
• Elites: Member of the upper class in India, including landholders, lawyers, business owners, and politicians. Many were educated in English and worked within or alongside the British administration.
• All-India Politics: Deals with issues affecting all provinces across India.
• Crown Rule: The British administration in India. Darjeeling, Bengal, was the summer headquarters for the British.

How did British rule change after the Great Revolt?

• After 1857, Britain recruited soldiers heavily from areas that maintained loyalty during the Great Revolt (e.g., Punjab).
• To prevent challenges to their authority, the British isolated these soldiers from regular society and barred them from top military positions.
• Sepoys (Indian soldiers) were strategically employed to suppress protests against the British.

British Policies and Restrictions

• British officials implemented laws to restrict Indians, controlling natural resources (like minerals and forests) and public spaces, deemed "state property."
• Legislation in the 1860s and 1870s aimed to control the usage of natural resources.
• The Vernacular Press Act of 1878 stifled the publication of articles critical of British authority.
• Segregation was used to enhance British power by setting up exclusive urban areas ("civil lines") for British residents.
• Villages were often replaced by paved roads, British-owned structures, homes, and government facilities, as well as isolated mountain retreats called "hill-stations."

Why did the British conduct a census in India?

• In 1871, the first All-India Census was initiated by British officials to gather data on where Indians lived, worked, language, and other aspects of their identity.
• This data was used to craft tailored policies to maintain control over the Indian population.
• The census particularly focused on religious communities, highlighting majority and minority populations.
• Religious data emphasized regions or groups where populations of particular faith were declining.

British Influence on Indian Identity

• The census affected communities of faith, influencing or changing the way religious leaders presented their beliefs to attract followers, or recalibrate beliefs.
• Documentation of caste identity in the census categorized society, enabling the British to understand and use the caste system as a method to organize and rule Indians.

The Caste System

• The caste system, used for ranking society in India, was deemed critical to understanding Indian society by the British, although it was rooted in religion and local politics.
• The British used the caste system to organize and control Indian citizens.
• The caste system was officially recognized and recorded in the census, recording over 300 different caste groups in some regions.
• British laws linked caste identities with property rights, military recruitment, and other forms of administrative control.
• Castes considered lower were treated as criminals and were required to interact with the police regularly.

Religion

• The Hindu Vedas (scriptures) describe a hierarchical ordering of people based on four varnas (castes): Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. These varnas defined social responsibilities and occupations.
• The highest ranking group was the Brahmans, followed by Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas.
• The Shudras, considered the lower class, had a less respected social status.
• The untouchables held the lowest social position.

Local Politics

• During Mughal rule, Indians struggled to defend their land rights and claim new territories.
• Warriors appealed to myths and religious texts to justify their rule over various regions.

Other Caste Identities

• Other caste identities arose from ancestral names, tribal affiliations, geographic locations, professions, religious beliefs, or perceived race.
• European colonial powers grouped people into caste categories based on class, language, military abilities, loyalty, or perceived racial identities.

Indentured Servitude

• Many Indians, facing economic hardship, were forced into indentured servitude, signing contracts to work for a set number of years for the British.
• This system was prevalent in various British colonies, such as the territories of present-day Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Kenya, and Uganda.
• Indentured servants replaced slaves in sugarcane fields and worked in rubber plantations.

The Railway System and its Impact

• The British invested heavily in building a railway system and communication networks throughout India.
• These infrastructure projects were intended for military troop transport and facilitating the rapid delivery of raw materials to coastal ports.
• Railway construction was profitable for the British government.
• The railway system, alongside industrialization, transformed every aspect of everyday Indian lives.
• Railways led to the disappearance of forests, allowing individuals and families travel to religious festivals and on pilgrimages.
• Urban centers and ports doubled or tripled in size, creating opportunities, and in many cases, unemployment and hardship for those excluded from new transportation routes.

Indian Politics and Protest

• By the late 1800s, Indians increasingly challenged British policies and economic reforms, particularly in response to widespread famine and other hardships.
• British rulers spent excessive amounts of money on festivals and royal events while ignoring widespread famine and hardship.

Why did the British want to partition Bengal?

• At the turn of the 1900s, Calcutta was a key center of anti-colonial activities and protests.
• British viceroy Curzon aimed to divide Bengal along religious lines to separate Muslim peasants in eastern Bengal from the Hindu professional and educated classes in western Bengal, (particularly in Calcutta).
• Curzon believed this separation would weaken the Indian National Congress, a politically influential group opposing British rule, as its influence was primarily concentrated in areas with a large Hindu population.

The Indian National Congress

• In 1885, seventy educated Indians formed the Indian National Congress.
• It was initially a debating society addressing concerns regarding British rule and its exclusionary policies.
• It evolved during the turn of the 20th century to become a significant mass political organization, attracting members of various religious communities, while remaining predominantly Hindu.

What Was the Swadeshi Movement?

• Following the British partition of Bengal, a nationalist movement called the Swadeshi movement urged people to boycott British goods and purchase Indian-made goods instead.
• The Swadeshi movement gained significant support among educated professionals, students, and some segments of the working class in Bengal and other areas.
• It aimed to achieve greater political representation for Indians.
• The Swadeshi movement encompassed public actions like bonfires of British goods, marches, and labor strikes, and sometimes included extremist elements resorting to violence.

Why did the British reverse the partition of Bengal?

• The Swadeshi movement lost support when leaders were imprisoned or deported; the British, however, continued to face growing political opposition in Bengal and the Punjab.
• In December 1911, facing mounting anti-colonial pressure, the British reversed the partition of Bengal, unifying the province.

Why was the Muslim League created?

• Some wealthy Muslim landholders, who did not share the enthusiasm of the Congress, were concerned that the Congress, as the largest political party, would win all political positions in India.
• They formed the Muslim League to address their specific fears and interests, especially Muslim representation.

What were the Morley-Minto Reforms?

• In 1909, the British established the Indian Councils Act (Morley-Minto Reforms), adding seats for Indians to provincial legislatures and other governing bodies.
• The reforms aimed to appease moderate members in the Congress party and weaken anti-colonial protests.
• The reforms introduced reserved seats and separate electorates for Muslim Indians in an effort to secure the loyalty of Muslim elites.

World War I: Hopes for Change

• Britain's entry into World War I in 1914 was met with growing protests against British colonial rule in India
• The war effort demanded resources, including money, raw materials, and soldiers from India, creating a global power imbalance.

Indian Soldiers in World War I

• The British Indian Army actively recruited Indian soldiers, who served in France and elsewhere.
• The British often used coercion to meet recruitment goals.
• Many Indian soldiers witnessed the contradiction of fighting for British freedom while lacking rights in their own country.

Self-Determination and Impact on Indian Political Goals

• The global narrative of self-determination significantly influenced the political goals of Indians.
• Self-determination, propagated by global leaders like Woodrow Wilson, led Indians to demand their own self-governance and right to control their own nation's affairs.

Why Did the British Refuse to Grant Self-determination to Indians?

• Despite global support for self-determination in World War I, the British viewed Indians as "unfit" or "uncivilized" for independent governance and withheld political freedoms.

A New Era: Mass Movements

• Mass movements emerged in India as an alternative to traditional political action.
• This was often in response to dissatisfaction with British leadership.
• The Rowlatt Satyagraha, Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, and the Non-Cooperation Movement exemplify such methods.

What was the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre?

• In 1919, a large crowd gathered in Amritsar's Jallianwala Bagh, unaware of a newly imposed gathering ban.
• British General Dyer ordered troops to fire on the unarmed crowd, resulting in numerous deaths, injuries, and widespread outrage.

Non-Cooperation Movement

• The Jallianwala Bagh massacre intensified anti-colonial protests.
• In 1920, Gandhi launched a new campaign, the Non-Cooperation Movement, which involved boycotts, protests, and nonviolent resistance against the British.
• The movement aimed to achieve swaraj (self-governance) by uniting different groups against British colonial rule.

Why did public opinion turn against the Non-Cooperation Movement?

• Violent riots, such as the Chauri Chaura incident, emerged as part of the Non-Cooperation Movement; these events influenced public sentiment to oppose the movement.

Why Did Gandhi Focus on the Salt Tax?

• During the Great Depression, the salt tax, imposed by the British, increased the cost of salt for Indians, impacting their lives and livelihoods.
• This act served as a catalyst for Gandhi's decision to organize a mass protest to challenge the tax, aiming to unite people from various groups across India.

Who Participated in Civil Disobedience?

• The Civil Disobedience Movement attracted broad participation from various sectors, including women, business owners, and those less previously active.
• Various groups supported the movement, though not uniformly in support of all actions.

How did the British government respond to Civil Disobedience?

• In response to the civil disobedience movement, the British resorted to mass arrests and force.
• Thousands of people, including children, were apprehended.

How did the imprisonment of Congress leaders offer the Muslim League an opportunity?

• During the Quit India Movement, the imprisonment of Congress leaders disrupted their campaign and led to opportunities for the Muslim League to gain support and grow.

Why did the British organize the Simla Conference?

• Facing criticism and dwindling resources, the British organized the Simla conference (1945) to explore a transition of power in the Indian subcontinent.

What was the Cabinet Mission?

• In 1946, the Cabinet Mission, sent by Britain, aimed to negotiate a transitional arrangement for India's independence.
• The mission proposed a plan for grouping provinces with provisions enabling provinces to separate should the need arise.

Why Did Jinnah announce the strategy of "Direct Action"?

• In response to the failed Cabinet Mission, Jinnah called on Muslims to actively participate in a mass action campaign (Direct Action Day) to push for Pakistan.

The Transfer of Power

• In February 1947, British Prime Minister Clement Attlee announced the British would withdraw from India by June 1948, handing over power to the newly formed independent Indian state.

Key Themes

• Growing Indian resistance to British rule
• The development of varied political and social movements
• The role of Gandhi in political and social movements
• The emergence of the Muslim League and the Pakistan Movement
• The complexities of the independence movement process
• The struggles between Hindus and Muslims in the Indian independence movement.

Explore the intricacies of the caste system in India and its evolution during colonial rule. This quiz delves into the societal roles, historical influences, and the significant events surrounding caste identities and their implications on Indian society. Test your knowledge on key events and figures related to the caste system and the impact of colonial powers.