Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which group of amino acids can be used for both Ketogenesis and Gluconeogenesis?
Which group of amino acids can be used for both Ketogenesis and Gluconeogenesis?
Which amino acid is a precursor of thyroid hormones and DOPA?
Which amino acid is a precursor of thyroid hormones and DOPA?
What is the precursor of GABA among the listed amino acids?
What is the precursor of GABA among the listed amino acids?
Which amino acid is considered as non-polar aliphatic?
Which amino acid is considered as non-polar aliphatic?
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Which basic amino acid is involved in collagen production?
Which basic amino acid is involved in collagen production?
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Which amino acid is a precursor of niacin, serotonin, and melatonin?
Which amino acid is a precursor of niacin, serotonin, and melatonin?
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Which amino acid is a part of the sulfur-containing group?
Which amino acid is a part of the sulfur-containing group?
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What amino acid is a precursor of porphyrins?
What amino acid is a precursor of porphyrins?
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What amino acid is not involved in Ketogenesis or Gluconeogenesis?
What amino acid is not involved in Ketogenesis or Gluconeogenesis?
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Which amino acid is most abundant in elastin?
Which amino acid is most abundant in elastin?
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Study Notes
Tongue Anatomy and Functions
- Lined with neuroepithelium, divided into three main parts: anterior 2/3, posterior 1/3, and base.
- Anterior 2/3:
- General sensation via the lingual nerve.
- Special taste sensation through the chorda tympani.
- Posterior 1/3:
- General pain sensation via cranial nerve IX (glossopharyngeal).
- Special taste sensation also via cranial nerve IX.
- Sulcus terminalis: V-shaped depression separating anterior and posterior parts; foramen caecum at its tip marks the embryologic location of the thyroid gland.
- Base of the tongue:
- General pain sensation through cranial nerves IX and X.
- Special taste sensation primarily through cranial nerve X.
Cranial Nerves and Sensation
- Taste sensation:
- Cranial nerves VII (facial), IX (glossopharyngeal), and X (vagus).
- Pain sensation:
- Cranial nerves V3 (mandibular branch of trigeminal), IX, and X.
Blood Supply to the Tongue
- Main supply derived from the external carotid artery.
- Other contributors: facial artery, ascending pharyngeal artery, and lingual artery.
Tongue Papillae Types
- Filiform: Most numerous, no taste buds; aid in gripping food; associated with hairy glossitis.
- Foliate: Located on lateral aspects of the tongue.
- Fungiform: Mushroom-shaped, primarily at the tip; contain taste buds.
- Circumvallate: Fewest in number (8-12), largest, located anterior to sulcus terminalis; contain minor salivary glands.
Body Temperature Regulation Nuclei
- Supra-optic nucleus: Produces vasopressin.
- Paraventricular nucleus: Produces oxytocin.
- Ventro-medial pre-optic nucleus (VMPO): Satiety center.
- Ventro-lateral pre-optic nucleus (VLPO): Sleep center.
Stages of Sleep
- Non-REM I: Eyes closed for 5-10 minutes, transition to sleep.
- Non-REM II: Light sleep; bradycardia and drop in body temperature.
- Non-REM III: Deep sleep with disorientation upon waking.
- REM sleep: Occurs after 90 minutes; characterized by tachycardia, tachypnea, and dreaming.
Thalamus Functions and Nuclei
- Functions: Arousal, attention focusing.
- Nuclei:
- Lateral geniculate: Visual sensation.
- Ventral posterior medial (VPM): Facial sensation and pain.
- Ventral anterior: Mediates motor functions.
- Ventral posterior lateral (VPL): Proprioception, touch, vibration, and pressure.
Cerebellum and Brainstem
- Cerebellum:
- Functions include posture and coordination.
- Brainstem:
- Origin of all cranial nerves except CN I and II.
- Nuclei include:
- Superior salivatory: VII for salivation.
- Inferior salivatory: IX for parotid gland.
- Nucleus ambiguous: IX and X during swallowing.
- Nucleus of the solitary tract: VII, IX, and X for taste sensation.
Heart Structures and Sounds
- Auscultation points for heart valves:
- Tricuspid valve: Left of sternal border, 5th intercostal space.
- Mitral valve: Midclavicular line, 5th intercostal space.
- Aortic valve: Right of sternal border, 2nd intercostal space.
- Pulmonary valve: Left of sternal angle, 2nd intercostal space.
- Heart sounds:
- "Lub" sound: Closure of tricuspid and mitral valves.
- "Dub" sound: Closure of aortic and pulmonary valves.
Aorta and Blood Supply
- Ascending aorta supplies heart via left and right coronary arteries.
- Aortic arch branches:
- Brachiocephalic artery: Bifurcates into right common carotid and right subclavian.
- Left common carotid and left subclavian arteries.
- Baroreceptors located in aortic arch and carotid sinus respond to blood pressure changes.
- Internal carotid artery is the main blood supply for the brain.
Pathology Related to Blood Supply
- Stroke (CVA): Most common in the middle cerebral artery.
- Epidural hematoma: Most common associated with the middle meningeal artery.
- Berry aneurysm: Most common in the anterior communicating artery.
- Myocardial infarction: Most common in coronary arteries.
Branches of the Descending Aorta
- Thoracic aorta (T4-T12) branches include bronchial, mediastinal, pericardial, superior phrenic, esophageal, intercostal, and subcostal arteries.
- Abdominal aorta branches (T12-L4) include inferior phrenic, celiac trunk, superior mesenteric, middle suprarenal, renal, gonadal, inferior mesenteric, median sacral, and lumbar arteries.
Fetal Circulation Pathway
- Oxygenated blood pathway:
- Umbilical vein → liver → ductus venosus → inferior vena cava → right atrium → foramen ovale → left atrium → left ventricle → aorta → right ventricle → pulmonary artery → ductus arteriosus.
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Test your knowledge on the anatomical positions of different heart valves and their corresponding auscultation sites. Remember the correlation between valve closure and heart sounds. Are you ready to ace this quiz on heart strings?
