Carbohydrates Overview and Biomedical Importance

Carbohydrates that can't be broken down into simpler sugars.

Carbohydrates that yield two monosaccharide units on hydrolysis.

Carbohydrates that yield 3 to 10 monosaccharide units on hydrolysis.

Carbohydrates that yield more than ten monosaccharide units on hydrolysis.

Monosaccharides are classified based on the position of the carbonyl group and the number of carbon atoms.

Carbohydrates are organic compounds that typically have the formula (CH₂O)n, where n is a number greater than or equal to 3. They are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones, or substances that yield these compounds on hydrolysis.

Carbohydrates serve as a primary source of energy for the body, providing fuel for cellular activities. They can be broken down into glucose, which is used in cellular respiration to produce ATP.

Glucose, fructose, galactose, and ribose are examples of simple sugars called monosaccharides. They cannot be further broken down into smaller carbohydrate units.

Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides join together through a glycosidic linkage. Common examples include sucrose (glucose + fructose) and lactose (glucose + galactose).

Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates composed of long chains of monosaccharides linked together by glycosidic bonds. They can be branched or unbranched. Examples include starch, glycogen, and cellulose.

A glycosidic linkage is a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by the removal of a water molecule. It is the type of bond that holds together disaccharides and polysaccharides.

Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are examples of homopolysaccharides, meaning they are composed of only one type of monosaccharide. Heteropolysaccharides are made up of different types of monosaccharides.

Glycoconjugates are complex molecules formed by the covalent attachment of carbohydrates to other molecules like proteins or lipids. They play vital roles in cell recognition, signaling, and adhesion processes.

The simplest type of sugar molecule, with three carbon atoms.

A monosaccharide with four carbon atoms.

A monosaccharide with five carbon atoms.

A monosaccharide with six carbon atoms.

A monosaccharide with an aldehyde group (CHO) at one end.

A monosaccharide with a ketone group (C=O) at one end.

A carbon atom that is bonded to four different atoms or groups of atoms.

The property of having a mirror image that cannot be superimposed on the original molecule.

A phenomenon where the specific rotation of an aqueous solution of a pure α or β anomer changes over time until it reaches a constant value, representing an equilibrium mixture of the anomers.

A type of sugar that can exist as both α and β anomers, which interconvert in solution.

A chiral carbon atom that is bonded to at least one oxygen atom and has four different atoms or groups attached to it.

A monosaccharide with a carbonyl group (C=O) at the second carbon atom.

A monosaccharide with an aldehyde group (CHO) at the first carbon atom.

Carbohydrates that have 3 or more carbon atoms and contain an aldehyde group, or have 4 or more carbon atoms and contain a ketone group.

The maximum number of possible stereoisomers for a molecule is determined by the formula 2^n, where n represents the number of chiral carbon atoms.

Stereoisomers that are non-superimposable mirror images of each other.

Stereoisomers that differ in the configuration of only one chiral center.

The two cyclic forms of a sugar that differ in the configuration of the anomeric carbon.

The rotation of plane-polarized light by a chiral molecule. Dextrorotatory molecules rotate light to the right, while levorotatory molecules rotate light to the left.

The ability of a molecule to rotate plane-polarized light to the right (clockwise). Designated with a plus sign (+).

The ability of a molecule to rotate plane-polarized light to the left (counterclockwise). Designated with a minus sign (-).

A mixture containing equal amounts of enantiomers (D and L isomers) resulting in zero optical activity.

Two forms of a cyclic sugar that differ in the orientation of the hydroxyl group attached to the anomeric carbon.

A type of isomerism where the difference in structure is due to the arrangement of atoms around a chiral center.