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Questions and Answers
What type of glycosidic linkages are present in cellulose?
What type of glycosidic linkages are present in cellulose?
- α-(l ----> 4) glucosidic bonds
- α-(1 ----> 6) glucosidic bonds
- β-(l ------> 4) linkages (correct)
- α-(l ----> 6) glucosidic bonds
What is the function of proteoglycans in the body?
What is the function of proteoglycans in the body?
- Component of RNA
- Component of ECM (correct)
- Component of cell wall
- Component of DNA
What is the term for carbohydrates linked to protein?
What is the term for carbohydrates linked to protein?
- Glycolipid
- Mucopolysaccharide
- Glycoprotein (correct)
- Proteoglycan
What are the repeating units of glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chains?
What are the repeating units of glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chains?
What is the function of proteoglycans in the cell membrane?
What is the function of proteoglycans in the cell membrane?
What is the term for the carbohydrate part of proteoglycans?
What is the term for the carbohydrate part of proteoglycans?
What is the function of proteoglycans in the GIT?
What is the function of proteoglycans in the GIT?
What is a primary function of carbohydrates in living organisms?
What is a primary function of carbohydrates in living organisms?
Which classification of carbohydrates includes glucose and fructose?
Which classification of carbohydrates includes glucose and fructose?
What type of polymer is glycogen?
What type of polymer is glycogen?
Which of the following carbohydrates performs structural functions in plants?
Which of the following carbohydrates performs structural functions in plants?
What distinguishes a heteroglycan from a homoglycan?
What distinguishes a heteroglycan from a homoglycan?
Which type of carbohydrate is sucrose classified under?
Which type of carbohydrate is sucrose classified under?
Where is chondroitin sulphate commonly found?
Where is chondroitin sulphate commonly found?
What differentiates epimers from other sugar molecules?
What differentiates epimers from other sugar molecules?
Why does dihydroxyacetone not have enantiomers?
Why does dihydroxyacetone not have enantiomers?
Which component is part of intracellular granules of mast cells?
Which component is part of intracellular granules of mast cells?
What is the smallest monosaccharide aldose?
What is the smallest monosaccharide aldose?
How many possible stereoisomers exist for a compound with $n$ chiral carbons?
How many possible stereoisomers exist for a compound with $n$ chiral carbons?
Which sulfate is typically found in the cornea?
Which sulfate is typically found in the cornea?
How are D- and L- configurations of sugar molecules determined?
How are D- and L- configurations of sugar molecules determined?
What is the characteristic feature of an anomeric carbon in ring structures?
What is the characteristic feature of an anomeric carbon in ring structures?
In Haworth projections, groups below the plane of the ring correspond to what in Fischer projections?
In Haworth projections, groups below the plane of the ring correspond to what in Fischer projections?
Which entities are epimers in the context of monosaccharides?
Which entities are epimers in the context of monosaccharides?
Which of the following monosaccharides is a reducing sugar?
Which of the following monosaccharides is a reducing sugar?
What distinguishes α and β anomers in carbohydrate structures?
What distinguishes α and β anomers in carbohydrate structures?
Which of the following sugars is non-reducing?
Which of the following sugars is non-reducing?
How do the groups on the two ring carbons bonded to the endocyclic oxygen atom behave in Haworth projections?
How do the groups on the two ring carbons bonded to the endocyclic oxygen atom behave in Haworth projections?
What describes D-glucose and L-glucose?
What describes D-glucose and L-glucose?
Why is sucrose considered a non-reducing sugar?
Why is sucrose considered a non-reducing sugar?
Which carbon is typically the anomeric carbon for aldoses?
Which carbon is typically the anomeric carbon for aldoses?
What defines whether a sugar is a D- or L-sugar in a Fischer projection?
What defines whether a sugar is a D- or L-sugar in a Fischer projection?
Which carbon is the anomeric carbon in D-gulose?
Which carbon is the anomeric carbon in D-gulose?
What type of stereoisomers are D-gulose and D-glucose?
What type of stereoisomers are D-gulose and D-glucose?
Why are some monosaccharides considered reducing sugars?
Why are some monosaccharides considered reducing sugars?
How can one determine the alpha anomer in a Haworth projection?
How can one determine the alpha anomer in a Haworth projection?
At what position is the OH group that determines the D- or L- configuration in D-gulose?
At what position is the OH group that determines the D- or L- configuration in D-gulose?
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Study Notes
Carbohydrate Chemistry
- Carbohydrates are polymers of monosaccharides (CH2O)n, acting as energy-storage molecules and structural components.
- They are the main source of energy for living organisms and can be oxidized to yield energy to drive metabolic processes.
Functions of Carbohydrates
- Primary source of energy
- Energy-storage molecules
- Help reserve muscle
- Structural functions (e.g., ribose in RNA, deoxyribose in DNA, cellulose in plant cell wall)
Classification of Carbohydrates
- Simple:
- Monosaccharides (e.g., glucose, galactose, fructose)
- Disaccharides (e.g., sucrose)
- Oligosaccharides (2-20 units)
- Polysaccharides (>20 units)
- Glycoconjugates:
- Linked covalently to a peptide chain, protein, or lipid
Homoglycans and Heteroglycans
- Homoglycan: polysaccharide containing only one type of monosaccharide unit (e.g., starch, glycogen)
- Heteroglycan: polysaccharide containing more than one type of monosaccharide unit (e.g., lactose)
Polysaccharides
- Homoglycans:
- Chondroitin sulfate (skin, blood vessels, heart valves, and cartilage)
- Dermatan sulfate (cartilage, bone, heart valves)
- Heparin and Heparan sulfates (basement membranes, components of cell surfaces)
- Keratan sulfate (cornea, bone, cartilage aggregated with chondroitin sulfates)
Stereoisomers, Epimers, and Enantiomers
- Stereoisomers: compounds having the same structural formula but differing in spatial configuration
- Epimers: sugar molecules that differ in configuration at only one of several chiral centers
- Enantiomers: occur when you have 2 mirror image structures that aren't superimposable, with opposite configurations at each chiral carbon
D- and L- Configurations of Sugars
- Look at the –OH on the bottommost stereogenic center that is far away from the carbonyl group
- If the OH- is on the right, then it's D-, while if it is on the left, then it's L-
Anomers
- The most oxidized carbon of a cyclized monosaccharide, the one attached to two oxygen atoms, is referred to as the anomeric carbon
Conjugated Carbohydrates
- Carbohydrates + protein or carbohydrates + lipid
- Includes:
- Glycolipid (in lipid part)
- Glycoprotein (mucoproteins) and proteoglycan:
- Both consist of protein + carbohydrates
- Differ in sites, sugars, shape, and size
Glycoprotein and Proteoglycan
- Glycoprotein: protein part >> CHO part
- Proteoglycan: consist of chains of GAGs attached to protein core (CHO >> protein part)
- Functions:
- Component of ECM and supporting tissues like cartilage
- Component of mucins in GIT and lung
- Component of cell membrane and acts as blood group antigen and cell surface receptors for hormones
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