Carbohydrates and Diabetes

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary form of maltose produced during starch digestion?

Fructose

Galactose

β Maltose

α Maltose (correct)

What is the difference between glucose and fructose in terms of their molecular structure?

Position of the carbonyl group (correct)

Number of oxygen atoms

Presence of a hydroxyl group

Number of carbon atoms

What type of ring structure does glucose primarily exist as in solution?

Furanose

Pyranose (correct)

Isopyranose

Isofuranose

What are mannose and galactose in relation to glucose?

Epimers Signup and view all the answers

What is the configuration of the glycosidic bond in α maltose?

Alpha configuration with oxygen below the plane Signup and view all the answers

What is the configuration of the glycosidic bond in β maltose?

Beta configuration with oxygen above the plane Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary cause of coma in unmanaged diabetes?

Both metabolic acidosis and increased osmolality of extracellular fluid Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of glucose in the body?

Providing a significant fraction of dietary calories Signup and view all the answers

What is the empiric formula for many simpler carbohydrates?

(CH2O)n Signup and view all the answers

What determines whether a sugar belongs to the D or L series?

The orientation of the —H and —OH groups around the carbon atom Signup and view all the answers

What is the classification of carbohydrates that are condensation products of three to ten monosaccharides?

Oligosaccharides Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of high levels of glucose in the blood if not managed properly?

Various health problems over time Signup and view all the answers

What is the type of bond that connects glucose units in amylopectin?

alpha-1,4 and alpha-1,6 glycosidic bonds Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of glycoproteins in cell membranes?

Cell recognition and signaling Signup and view all the answers

What is the nine-carbon sugar that is a constituent of glycoproteins and gangliosides?

Neuraminic acid Signup and view all the answers

What type of bond is formed between glucose units in starch?

alpha-1,4 glycosidic bonds Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the process of attaching oligosaccharide chains to proteins?

Glycosylation Signup and view all the answers

What is the storage form of glucose in animals?

Glycogen Signup and view all the answers

What is the type of sugar that is less common in nature?

Beta-maltose Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of sialic acids in glycoproteins and gangliosides?

Immune response Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Diabetes Complications

High glucose levels in the blood can cause health problems over time if not managed properly
Coma can result from both acidosis (due to ketone bodies production) and increased osmolality of extracellular fluid (mainly due to hyperglycemia and diuresis)

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature
They have various functions, including providing dietary calories, acting as a storage form of energy, and serving as cell membrane components
The empiric formula for simpler carbohydrates is (CH2O)n, hence the name "hydrate of carbon"
Glucose is the most important carbohydrate

Classification of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides
Monosaccharides cannot be hydrolyzed into simpler carbohydrates and are classified as trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses, or heptoses
Disaccharides are condensation products of two monosaccharide units (e.g. lactose, maltose, sucrose)
Oligosaccharides are condensation products of three to ten monosaccharides (most are not digested by human enzymes)
Polysaccharides are condensation products of more than ten monosaccharide units

Isomers and Epimers

D and L isomerism: the orientation of the —H and —OH groups around the carbon atom adjacent to the terminal alcohol carbon determines whether the sugar belongs to the D or L series
Most naturally occurring monosaccharides are D sugars, and the enzymes responsible for their metabolism are specific for this configuration
Epimers: small differences in the structure of sugar molecules (e.g. glucose, mannose, and galactose)

Ring Structures of Monosaccharides

Pyranose and furanose ring structures: similar to the ring structures of either pyran (six-membered ring) or furan (five-membered ring)
Glucose in solution is mostly in the pyranose form (>99%)

Aldose-Ketose Isomerism

Fructose and glucose have the same molecular formula (C6H12O6) but differ in the arrangement of atoms
Glucose has an aldehyde group (at the end of the chain), while fructose has a ketone group (within the chain)
This structural difference gives them distinct chemical and biological properties

Disaccharides

α and β Maltose: two distinct forms of maltose, a disaccharide composed of two glucose molecules
α Maltose: glycosidic bond between the two glucose molecules is formed with the alpha configuration
β Maltose: glycosidic bond between the two glucose molecules is formed with the beta configuration
Alpha maltose is the more common form found in nature and is the primary form produced during starch digestion

Polysaccharides

Starch and glycogen are storage forms of glucose in plants and animals, respectively
Amylose: a linear polymer of glucose units joined by alpha-1,4-glycosidic bonds
Amylopectin: a branched polymer with both alpha-1,4 and alpha-1,6 glycosidic bonds

Glycoproteins

Glycoproteins (also known as mucoproteins) are proteins containing branched or unbranched oligosaccharide chains including fucose
They occur in cell membranes and many proteins are glycosylated
Sialic acids (N- or O-acyl derivatives of neuraminic acid) are constituents of both glycoproteins and gangliosides

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Description

Learn about the effects of carbohydrates on blood glucose levels and the risks of diabetes, including coma and other health problems. Understand the classification and structure of carbohydrates.