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Transoceanic Interconnections from c. 1450 to c. 1750

• Christopher Columbus's 1492 voyage connected the Eastern and Western hemispheres, establishing the first global trade networks and setting the stage for subsequent historical events.
• Between 1450 and 1750, European states, led by Portugal and Spain, sought a transoceanic route to Asia and established trading post empires in the Indian Ocean, leading to contact with the Americas.
• Trans-Atlantic trade connected the Americas, Europe, and Africa and European colonists in the Americas developed plantations and a demand for laborers, fueling the trade in enslaved Africans.
• Trans-Pacific trade also flourished, with silver from Latin America as a major commodity and the Columbian Exchange involved the transfer of crops, animals, and diseases between hemispheres, altering life worldwide.
• The introduction of potatoes, corn, and tomatoes to Europe led to population growth, while deadly pathogens devastated the populations of the Americas.
• Regional commerce and established states in Afro-Eurasia continued to thrive alongside increasing European influence and empires like the Mughal, Ottoman, and Qing expanded, creating diverse states.
• Increased demand for goods and food led to intensified peasant and artisan labor and these developments laid the groundwork for the revolutions following 1750.

Technological Innovations

• From 1450 to 1750 cross-cultural interactions spread technology and facilitated changes in trade and travel
• Land-based empires were important, various inventions allowed Europeans to venture long distances on the ocean.
• China originally created the magnetic compass for fortune telling, and it then became an important tool to help steer ships in the right direction.
• Muslim navigators improved the astrolabe in the 12th century, which allowed sailors to determine their distance from the equator.
• The caravel was a small, three-masted sailing ship that the Portuguese developed in the 15th century and allowed sailors to better withstand storms at sea.
• Mapmaking (cartography) and understanding wind and current patterns improved navigation, as well as increases in demographic pressures.
• Primogeniture laws in Europe gave all of each estate to the eldest son and religious minorities searched for places to settle, which contributed to people exploring new areas.
• The Indian Ocean trade routes had long connected East/South Asia with the Mediterranean via the Red Sea by bringing silk, spices and tea.
• Islamic traders knew land routes from China to Baghdad, Constantinople, and Rome long before the 16th century.
• Many more Europeans became very active in the Indian Ocean during the 16th century, motivated by both the prospect of acquiring wealth and also the possibility of people converting
• Europeans faced competition from Middle Eastern traders based in Oman and the Portuguese set up forts in Oman but were repeatedly challenged.
• The Omani-European rivalry contributed to Columbus's search for a new route to India and his voyages connected people across the Atlantic Ocean.
• Sugar, tobacco, and rum were purchased from the Americas and enslaved people were purchased from Africa
• Silk, spices, and rhubarb were purchased from Asia and this trade transformed Spain, Portugal, Great Britain, France, and Holland into maritime empires.
• In Southeast Asia, Europeans conducted most of their business with women, who traditionally handled markets and money-changing services.
• Portugal, Spain and England were aware of traditions such as sailing that went back to the classical Greeks, such as using the stars to navigate.
• Islamic and Asian sailors and scholars new ideas were combined with this knowledge.
• Al-Andalus, or modern day Spain, spread Islamic ideas into Europe and Portuguese ruler Prince Henry the Navigator financed expeditions along Africa's Atlantic Coast and around the Cape of Good Hope.
• Scholars such as Newton improved sailing safety by discovering gravitation, which resulted in increased knowledge of the tides.
• Improvements were also made to cartography, for example, with astronomical charts, which are maps of the stars and galaxies.
• Chinese astronomers' charts date back to the 5th century BCE, which helped guide ships direction.
• Astrolabes helped determine how far north or south sailors were from the equator and aided in navigation.
• Mariners in both China and also in Europe in the 12th century discovered the magnetic compass, which allowed sailors to steer a ship correctly.
• Lateen sails (triangular sails), which were used by Arab sailors and in the Indian Ocean, significantly affected medieval navigation and trade.
• New types of ships also improved trade, by adjusting the ratio of length to width of a ship and different masts were adding which improved their effeciency.

Three Types of Ships

• Carrack: 150 feet in length. It uses square and lateen sails on 3-4 masts who’s primary user is Portugal.
• Caravel: 75 feet in length. It uses lateen sails on 2 or 3 mast who’s primary users are Portuguese and Spanish.
• Fluyt: 80 feet in length. It uses a square of 2 or 3 masts who’s primary user is Dutch.
• The long-term combination of navigational techniques resulted in a rapid expansion of exploration and global trade.
• Gunpowder, as a Chinese invention, aided Europeans in their conquests abroad as well as sea Pirates, such as The Dutch who became known as Sea Beggars.
• The increased growth of the Abbasid empire which was centered in Baghdad and the Muslim merchants led to the rapid spread of Islam to North Africa.
• Navigational techniques continued to spread throughout the 17th century as Russia’s Tsar Peter the Great visited Western Europe in 1697 to observe military.

Exploration: Causes and Events

• From 1450-1750 maritime exploration expanded with European States playing a large role in discovering new lands for profit.
• Italian cities had a trade monopoly with Asia, Spain, Portugal, France, England and the Netherlands were now in search for new routs to Asia.
• Explorers were interested in economic and political reasons as riches, especially gold and silver and converting others to Christianity with technological advancements.
• Christopher Columbus gained support from the Spanish monarchs, Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand for his voyages which helped increase interest in exploration.
• The rivalries of European states stoked efforts to expand before any other power might claim it.
• It was believed by Europeans that they were doing their Christian duties in order to convert them
• States were centrally involved in maritime exploration voyages and they would require financial support from a state.
• In the 17th century, how much gold and silver each country measures it by wealth and set policies designed to sell as many foods
• This theory , known as mercantilism, required heavy government involvement.
• Portugal led to the way in European exploration and maritime innovation but lacked the ability to expand due to the Spanish kingdoms of Castile and Aragon
• Prince Henry the Navigator (1394–1460) became the first European monarch to sponsor seafaring expeditions as search for African Gold.
• Bartolomeu Diaz he sailed around southern tip of Africa into waters his crew did not know and returned home when his crew feared mutiny if they carried on pushing eastward.
• Vasco da Gama his claimed territory as part of Portugal’s empire and helped expand Portugal’s in India.
• Afonso de Albuquerque won a short but bloody battle and set up a factory at Malacca in present-day Indonesia.
• Explorers did not have that much of impact in Chinese Society though Roman Catholic missionaries worked to gain converts amoung Chinese people.
• Matteo Ricci impressed the chinese with their learning during the scientific and technical knowledge.
• Trading Post Empire: portuguese constructed a series of forts to establish a monopoly over the spice trade. Portuguese Vulnerability: Portugal didn’t have enough of workers to keep them a large trading.
• Portuguese also traveled to japan to trade until Christian missionaries when the rulers outlawed.
• Spanish in the Phillipines: 1 ship to circumnavigate the government.
• Spain annexes Philippines in 1521 to conquer the Filipinos to attarct Chinese Merchants.
• Columbus and other find gold, silver, and other valuable resources which led to European interest in the Americas.
• Trade Across PAcific: China was enthusiastic consumer of the silver.The Spanish ships traded European luxury goods such as silk and spices which became currency.
• NW Passage: the french did not get to Asia and started to trade with Americas for resources.
• French and spain hoped to find gold so estabilished trading for fur and established to tradng post they named Quebec.
• Engalnd-1497: Cabot claimed lands from the NE part of NA. After defeating Spanish naval fleet, England declared land and resources in America.
• English: Virginia was stablished to settle 60 miles inland of coast and called “The james town” was one of the earliest american colonies.

Columbian Exchange

• Due to conquest and colonization, Americas proved disastrous for native peoples while the interactions of indigenous American, Europeans, and Africans caused cultural growth.
• New ways of life with the Eastern and Western hemispheres became linked in a exchange of disease, food, animals and more
• Columbian exchange had far-reaching changes in global population which sometimes have unintended consequences due to Spain mining silver successfully.
• Columbus almost completely isolated the Western Hemisphere.
• Spanish soldiers, called conquistadores, brought disease such as smallbox, infecting populations which led to increase death tolls.
• Germ and disease transmissions were only one part of the Columbian Exchange with sharing of new crops and livestock in both directions.
• The arrival of the horse gave Indians access to hunting Buffalo more efficiently.
• European explorers brought back popular plants to grow back home, Potatoes are most known in Ireland and increase population in the 16th and 17th centuries.
• The coerced arrival of enslaved Africans made its way to the Americas with biological and demographic hanges and brought okra and rice with them to the Americas
• Sugar’s profitability the transatlantic slave trade increased the constant importation of African labor throughout Brazil.
• With sugarcane cultivation the Portuguese decided to import slaves to Brazil due to many dying off in diseases.
• African laborers were so numerous which resulted to the majority population of brazil.
• Africans often died working hard, nutrition lack, tropical food and because of that 5-10% of laborers.
• Colonization and agriculture resulted in cash crop such as sugar and tobacco being planted for profit/sale.
• In a while, sugar began to eclipse silver as main money maker for colonizer.
• Cultures among people of Africa weren’t completely a total waster once captives arrived to Americas. There was retainment of aspects of their cultures over generations.
• Some Africans kept in contact with parts of their West-African languages and grammatical with european countries language.
• Musical cultures blended and combined syncopated rhythms with the percussion they used influenced gospel, blues, jazz, rock and roll, hip hop, rap, samba, reggae, and country music.
• African descendants maintained tradition which helped to communicate and blending the Christian religion which led to essentials of America folk history.

Crops Exchanges

• Eastern to Western Hemisphere: sugar, wheat, barley, okra, rice, oranges, grapes, lettuce, coffee results to soil erosion because the same amount of space for crops.
• Western to Eastern Hemisphere: potatoes, maize, manioc, tobacco, cacao, peanuts resuls to a better nutrition for all.
• Animal Exchange: Horses, Oxen, etc lead to soil erosion caused by diseases which lead to livestocks to the Americas.
• People Exchange: Europeans and Africans lead to a chattel slavery and societies which has a based structure of ethnic.
• Disease Exchange: Smallpox, Measles results to million of deaths to the Americas as well as the bubonic plague + more.
• Ideas Exchange: alphabetic writing and firearms leads to improved communication and warfare.
• The Americas and Afro-Eurasia led to dramatic changes and results. The Americas began agricultural methods much more intensley than did American and deforestation occurred
• Contact between the Americas and Afro-Eurasia caused dramatic changes to both and they also use much more agricultural Land.

Maritime Empires Link Regions

• European nations set up maritime empires and posts because of political, religious, and economic rivalry which exchanged luxury goods.
• Enslaved African labor contributed to demographic, social, and cultural changes in the Americas.
• Explorations were how maritime empires began by claiming and building the bases of their empire.
• Certain parts of West and East were conquested at the late 15th century which was lead by Prince Henry the Navigator financed by a European Power.
• First Portuguese started setting up along Africas coats and local rulers traded enslaved people to the Europeans for goods. Portugal also started setting up in Trading Post Empire in east Africa by invading most areas of the Indian Ocean trade.
• In comparison Europeans had more control over the people and Japan was restricting its trades and the Japanese weren’t as tolerable to the Portuguese.
• In contrast the ming were trying to undo influence on china and there was limits with the China examination which lead china to go on in global economy.
• Maritime Empires and Trade European rivalries fueled power between each other and Portuguese controlled Post in India and British India got there relations, and in the mid 1800s there was 7 years war for power.
• With tensions between Muslims and Hindus as well as forces lead Britain to Intervene India politically and made them end up controlling much over much their region.
• The British Trading Post which became a node to connect the global power that led many goods and parts to the world.
• Spain and the Incas fell in the hands of conquistador leading new Spain to form. Spain would melt it and ship it to the west and Columbus thought there was gold.
• Spain, however, was not able to control the entirety of NA because the French, English, and Dutch created new settlements and caused a bit a conflict.
• There was France vs Britain with the French forming ties with the Indians who began to realize were a threat which means an alliance was in order. A shift in alliances resulted in the French signing peace (The great peace of Montreal) to drive out from India.
• Europeans trading for silver as they came to East India and continued those type of buisiness with paying taxes and fees.

Change and Continuity in Economic Systems

• Indian Ocean trade networks were familiar with this before Europeans and Europeans trade for naval forces, creating a stream of trading posts.
• Spain and Gold helped to Columbas in the Americas because he was known for Hispaniola which let him be able to enslave people to Spain. Which caused more tension. Spain: they did that by letting people work for food and other resources.
• Spanish people often used land to give people resources.Wheat, fruit, sugar, and other products had to be worked by coercive labor.Most conquistadors were men and they would have children with Natives in the Americas.
• Spain, in its quest for riches, turned their attention in using silver.As a response. They sought for individuals todo the dangerous. In response, Spanish authorities in Peru transformed the traditional
• There has been a long term in which natives have to work on public work project that lead to coerce in labor. Villages got a percentage to do work in the mines.
• Through silver trade, the Spain economy had a system that increased authority through tarrifs.
• During there area, western Europe sought expensive labor in Americas and there wasn’t any good in Africa for people too.
• Africans were sold in the Americas that were controlled slavery.

Maritime Empires Develop

• This unit covers how maritime empires transformed commerce to small-scale trading using more global-scale trade of gold.
• Empires employed new economic models, such as joint-stock companies, which supported increased trade to Asia. New ocean trade routes helped this as it then began to make it’s way outwards.
• The Atlantic system is what involved enslaved persons in the mixing of all areas. As silver, slavery, and sugar became integral keys of development
• In the 17th century, how much gold and silver each country has.
• Capital, material wealth, is in Western Europe because people entered long distance which also lead to lending at high interest.

Economic Strategies

• The transformation to a trade-based economy was known as the Commercial Revolution and key factors such joint-stock companies, opening trade routes, european overseas. The increase of gold and silver being mined rose the inflation rate which meant the high value inflation rate which is also called Price Revolution
• The dutch have long be commerce in Euope such as North and South Africa however the english was much faster which is due to Dutch East India Company
• The Pioneers of finance in the early stages had a stock exchange while it is true that some european countries got lucky such for england who went victim in financial bubble as they gained great revenue from the investment.
• Europeans with Desire had some new labor such in America while Atlantic has become to be source for a triangular that had many segway to its trading.
• Europeans stumbled in America in where Atlantic became significant in their trade as Portugal defeated a combined war leading up to Morroco inland over riches.
• New global circulation had Asian goods as silk and Spanish trade with the American such good from goods of land and ocean. The tobacco
• Spanish colonies such profits and the profits grew larger the volume the markets however due to that it came with many new goals and opportunities along with the profits.
• The flow of products produced benefits as well helping expand middle class and the wealth caused led to an increase and as time went on there was an increase to the industrial revolution to the benefits of the economy from profits.
• This led to disruption and they also caused some disruption that’s led to the demographic shift of where the atlantic ocean is and many other areas had many to do with the increase of enslaved peoples.

Internal & External Challenges to State Power

• Empires developed and were challenged socially, politically, and economically and the revolts occurred, and even the disturbances.
• The English had a power to control Natives so they had that ongoing pressure to keep them under control. All powers fought each other for empires also with other powers in society.
• In what would then becoming africa the dutch and english came to push the Portuguese and they came africa for the colony. Nzinga became ruler over the colony and in reward Portugal ended raids

Local resistance in Russia

• Western Culture had serfs being pressured but improved . It is because from a response of wars and the way how everything went and how nobles had more power than the others. The government began to benefit from all of this so peasants had to be under a lot of control. Serfdom expanded into many areas which led to people under control.
• Cossacks and Peasant Rebellions: Peasants near the Black Sea in Russia used to be fighters and ran away and were all at odds about how to give freedom. As time began, the people with the group had too much control.
• Rebellions South Asia/America In spain revolt and war came when they attempted to force indigenous people under spanish control to abandon indigenous beliefs.

Changing Social Hierarchies

• As societies were faced with internal and external rebellions , social hierarchies began to develop, with the treatment of groups of people and laws that recognized people as a separate group.
• Tension continued but in most Islamic empires the elite and the rules were tensions (Ex:Turkey, Iran, and India). Where people with military successes used guns when available
• Ottoman society had elite tensions which started a competition for bureaucracy with ulama , who are law experts. Within the military, the janissaries (elites) gained a spot of strength and prestige which lead to some tensions.

Ottoman Society

• As Sultans became unable the Vizlers took over speaking for the Sultan but did not include Timar from the Sultans position.
• Also this means that because of what the Turks did then lead and take over much religious and cultural position for the group there.

Qing Dynasty

• China's Qing Dynasty is one of the largest which is due to China was being tolerant of the other religions and in a manner gave grant to building to it.
• Women would also lead and promote there children so it could be seen who leads and gains this position.
• Manchu and Power: In the end, to be noted that Qing had a strong rule where tolerance was known. So it became an important position for people.

Religious views for Russia

• They would also have tensions due to expansion however Ivans did the worst thing and did some great crime

Europe

• in the Netherlands, nobility held to do more work then a person and had more then just wealth. Those that have bad people wanted to take over so they took over it.

Acceptance of views

• Some groups such such muslim began to have more power where this means the spanish was just as similar for them over religions
• Those born in religious began to become more and people want more power leading those tension to the side. And they wanted to do things that did not go for them.
• To be set there those also was the casta to make peace between people and to be a set and for people to not be as hard.