Exam 3 Study Questions

The neural plate folds into a groove, then a tube, forming the brain and spinal cord.

The initial three bulges of the developing brain: prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and rhombencephalon.

The further divisions of the primary brain vesicles into telencephalon, diencephalon, midbrain, metencephalon, and myelencephalon.

Bends in the developing brain due to growth constraints.

Internal fluid-filled spaces within the brain, derived from the embryonic neural canal.

Fluid that circulates within the ventricles and central canal.

Three protective membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord: dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater.

Inflammation of the meninges, often resulting from bacterial or viral infection.

Area of the brain responsible for initiating voluntary muscle movements, generating signals that travel to the spinal cord.

The most anterior part of the frontal lobe, involved in higher-level cognitive functions like planning, decision-making, and working memory.

Region in the frontal lobe vital for speech production, enabling us to form words and sentences.

Region in the temporal lobe critical for language comprehension, understanding the meaning of spoken and written words.

A relay station in the diencephalon, filtering and directing sensory information to the cerebral cortex.

Part of the diencephalon controlling vital functions like body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sleep-wake cycles.

Located in the metencephalon, responsible for coordinating movements, maintaining balance, and motor learning.

The lowest part of the brainstem, controlling vital reflexes like breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher-level functions like thinking, memory, and language.

A region located below the telencephalon, regulating sensory information, hormone production, and sleep-wake cycles.

A thick band of nerve fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the cerebrum, allowing communication and coordination.

The raised ridges or folds on the surface of the cerebrum.

The grooves or valleys between the gyri on the surface of the cerebrum.

Deep grooves or clefts on the surface of the cerebrum, separating major brain lobes.

The five major divisions of the cerebrum: frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal, and insula.

A group of structures deep within the brain involved in planning and coordinating movement, as well as habit learning.

One of the basal ganglia structures shaped like a curved tail, involved in planning and initiating movements.

A basal ganglia structure made of the putamen and globus pallidus, crucial for controlling movement precision and learning motor skills.

A network of structures involved in emotions, memory, motivation, and behavior, often referred to as the 'emotional brain'.

It plays a crucial role in regulating emotions, learning, memory formation, and behavioral responses.

The spinal cord extends from the foramen magnum (opening at the base of the skull) down to the level of the first lumbar vertebra (L1), located just below the ribs.

The cauda equina is a bundle of spinal nerve roots that extend from the conus medullaris (the tapered end of the spinal cord) and resemble a horse's tail. It allows signals to travel to and from the lower limbs and pelvic organs.

Gray matter in the spinal cord contains the cell bodies of neurons and their unmyelinated processes. It is responsible for processing information and integrating reflexes.

The anterior (ventral) horns of the gray matter contain motor neurons that control voluntary muscle movements, sending signals to muscles.

The posterior (dorsal) horns of the gray matter receive sensory information from the body, relaying it to the brain for processing.

The central canal is a narrow channel located within the gray commissure (connecting the two halves of the gray matter) that contains cerebrospinal fluid.

All the neurons in the gray matter of the spinal cord are multipolar neurons, meaning they have multiple dendrites and a single axon.

Denticulate ligaments are extensions of the pia mater (the innermost meningeal layer) that attach the spinal cord to the dura mater (the outermost meningeal layer), providing stability and preventing lateral movement.

The inner region of the spinal cord, containing neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons. Responsible for processing information and generating responses.

The outer region of the spinal cord, composed primarily of myelinated axons that form tracts or pathways. Facilitates communication between different parts of the nervous system.

Carry sensory information from the body to the brain, allowing us to feel, perceive, and process sensory inputs.

Carry motor commands from the brain to the body, controlling voluntary muscle movements and coordinating actions.

Connect the two hemispheres of the spinal cord, enabling communication and coordination between the left and right sides of the body.

Carries information from the skin, muscles, and joints to the brain, allowing us to feel touch, pressure, temperature, and proprioception.

Carries information from internal organs like the heart, lungs, and digestive system to the brain. Helps monitor the internal environment.

Controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles, allowing us to walk, talk, write, and perform other conscious actions.

A neuron located in the motor cortex of the brain, responsible for initiating voluntary movements.

A neuron located in the spinal cord's anterior horn, directly controlling muscle contractions by relaying signals from upper motor neurons.

Direct pathway for voluntary movement, originating in the motor cortex and traveling through the pyramids of the medulla.

Indirect pathway for movement, involving multiple brain areas and influencing muscle tone, posture, and coordination.

A group of axons traveling together, forming a bundle and interconnected by connective tissue.

Axons are individually covered by a thin layer of connective tissue called endoneurium.

Bundles of axons that are wrapped together by a layer of connective tissue called perineurium.

The outermost covering of a nerve is called the epineurium, which holds all the fascicles together.

Nerves are composed of bundles of axons called fascicles, which are grouped and protected by three layers of connective tissue: endoneurium, perineurium, and epineurium.

There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves, each with a specific function.

Cranial nerves innervate structures in the head region, including the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and facial muscles.

The Xth cranial nerve (vagus nerve) extends beyond the head and innervates visceral organs, like the heart and lungs.

There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves, each serving a specific region of the body.

Each spinal nerve is formed by two roots: the dorsal root (sensory) and the ventral root (motor).

After a short distance, a spinal nerve divides into a dorsal ramus (innervates the back) and a ventral ramus (innervates the front).

The phrenic nerve, formed from C3-C5, supplies the diaphragm, the main muscle for breathing.

The brachial plexus, formed from C5-T1, innervates the upper limb, giving rise to nerves like the radial and ulnar nerves.

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary bodily functions like heart rate, digestion, and breathing.

The 'fight-or-flight' response system. It prepares the body for stressful situations by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and alertness.

The 'rest-and-digest' system. It calms the body after stress, slowing heart rate, lowering blood pressure, and promoting digestion.

Somatic controls voluntary muscle movement, while autonomic controls involuntary actions like heart rate and digestion.

Chemicals like acetylcholine and norepinephrine that transmit signals within the autonomic nervous system.

Proteins on cells that receive neurotransmitters, triggering specific responses.

Reflexes are automatic, pre-programmed responses to stimuli, while reactions are planned and conscious.

The pathway of a reflex, including sensory neuron, interneuron, and motor neuron.

The part of the peripheral nervous system responsible for regulating involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate, digestion, breathing, and blood pressure.

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.

Pre-programmed, involuntary motor responses to specific stimuli.

Specialized cells that detect stimuli (changes in the environment) and convert them into signals that the nervous system can understand.

Receptors act as transducers, converting one form of energy (stimulus) into another form of energy (nerve signal).

The specific area of the body or environment that a receptor monitors.

Receptors that continuously send signals as long as the stimulus is present, maintaining awareness of the stimulus.

Receptors that send signals only at the beginning and end of a stimulus, adapting quickly to constant stimuli.

Receptors that detect stimuli from the external environment, such as light, sound, touch, and temperature.

Receptors that detect stimuli from within the body, such as blood pressure, blood pH, and internal organ stretch.

Receptors that detect body position and movement, providing information about joint angles, muscle length, and muscle tension.

Sensory receptors that are located in the skin and other tissues, responsible for detecting pain, temperature, and pressure.

A group of sensory receptors located around the base of hair follicles that detect hair movement.

The ability to distinguish between two points of touch as separate.

The process by which sensory receptors become less responsive to a sustained stimulus.

Receptors that respond quickly to a stimulus and then adapt, only signaling changes in the stimulus.

Receptors that continue to send signals for as long as the stimulus is present, providing a constant awareness of the stimulus.

A proprioceptor located within muscles that detects muscle stretch.

The middle layer of the eye, also known as the uvea. It's pigmented and contains the ciliary body, ciliary muscles, and ciliary processes.

The opening in the center of the iris that allows light to enter the eye. It's controlled by circular and radial smooth muscles.

The innermost layer of the eyeball. It contains photoreceptors, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells, which convert light into electrical signals.

Specialized cells in the retina that detect light. There are two types: rods (sensitive to dim light) and cones (sensitive to color).

The process by which light energy is converted into electrical signals in the retina.

The nerve that carries electrical signals from the eye to the brain.

Normal vision, where light focuses directly on the retina.

Tiny structures on the tongue that contain chemoreceptors for taste. They detect dissolved chemicals called tastants, allowing us to experience different flavors.

Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami are the five basic tastes detected by taste buds. Each taste receptor is most sensitive to one of these tastes.

A specialized tissue lining the roof of the nasal cavity, containing olfactory receptor cells. These cells respond to odorants and initiate the sense of smell.

The tough, white outer layer of the eyeball that provides structural support and protection.

A transparent, biconvex structure located behind the iris that focuses light onto the retina. It changes shape to adjust for near and far vision.

The central egg-shaped part of the inner ear, located posterior to the cochlea. It contains the saccule and utricle, which house equilibrium receptors (maculae) that detect gravity and linear acceleration.

Three fluid-filled canals (anterior, posterior, and lateral) in the inner ear that sense rotational movements of the head. Each canal has an ampulla containing the crista ampullaris, a motion sensor with a gelatinous cap called the cupula.

Hearing loss caused by problems with the outer or middle ear, preventing sound waves from reaching the inner ear. This can be due to earwax buildup, infection, or damage to the eardrum or ossicles.

Hearing loss caused by damage to the inner ear or auditory nerve. It affects the ability to process sound signals.

A disorder affecting the vestibular system (inner ear), causing episodes of vertigo, nausea, vomiting, and hearing loss. It's caused by imbalances in the fluid within the inner ear.

The outer ear is the visible part of the ear that gathers and directs sound waves towards the middle ear. It consists of the auricle, external auditory meatus, and tympanic membrane.

The middle ear is an air-filled cavity that amplifies sound vibrations. It contains three tiny bones (malleus, incus, stapes), the oval window, and the round window.

The inner ear is fluid-filled and houses the cochlea, responsible for hearing, and the vestibular apparatus, responsible for balance.

The cochlea is a snail-shaped structure containing the organ of Corti, which transforms sound vibrations into nerve impulses that the brain can interpret.

Hair cells are sensory receptors located within the organ of Corti. They have hair-like structures called stereocilia that bend in response to sound vibrations.

Sound transduction is the process of converting sound vibrations into electrical signals that the brain can understand. This occurs within the cochlea when hair cells bend and send nerve impulses to the brain.

Frequency refers to the number of sound wave cycles per second. It determines the pitch of a sound, with higher frequencies corresponding to higher pitches.

Amplitude is the height of a sound wave, determining the loudness or intensity of a sound. Larger amplitudes correspond to louder sounds.