Biomolecules Unit 1 Review

Benchmark Review 12/18/24

• The date of the benchmark review is 12/18/24.

Unit 1: Biomolecules

• Biomolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids) create specific structures and functions in cells.
• Key questions include: How does cell structure result from biomolecule function? How does cell function result from biomolecule function?

Biomolecule Types

• Carbohydrates:
• Elements: CHO
• Monomer: Monosaccharide
• Polymer: Disaccharide, Polysaccharide
• Functions: Short-term energy storage, structural support
• Examples: Glucose, sucrose, glycogen, starch
• Lipids:
• Elements: CHO
• Monomer: Fatty acids and glycerol
• Polymer: Polysaccharide
• Functions: Long-term energy storage, insulation
• Examples: Olive oil, Crisco, Fats, oils, steroids
• Proteins:
• Elements: CHON
• Monomer: Amino Acid
• Polymer: Polypeptide
• Functions: Enzymes, muscle movement, transport
• Examples: RNA Polymerase
• Nucleic Acids:
• Elements: CHONPS
• Monomer: Nucleotide
• Polymer: Nucleic acid
• Functions: Storing genetic information
• Examples: DNA and RNA

Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells

• Prokaryotes:
• Simple, unicellular organisms
• Lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
• Circular DNA
• Examples include bacteria and archaea
• Eukaryotes:
• Complex, multicellular organisms
• Contain a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
• Linear DNA
• Examples include animals and plants

Cell Structures and Functions

• Plasmodesmata: Channels connecting plant cells
• Cell Wall: Maintains cell shape in plant cells
• Plasma Membrane: Outer boundary of the cell
• Cytoplasm: The region within the plasma membrane
• Central Vacuole: Stores cell sap and maintains pressure
• Cytoskeleton: Made of microtubules and microfilaments and plays a role in maintaining cell shape and movement.
• Nucleus: Contains chromatin, a nuclear envelope, and a nucleolus (in animal cells)
• Ribosomes: Involved in protein synthesis
• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies and packages proteins
• Peroxisome: Metabolizes waste
• Mitochondria: Produce energy
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Rough ER is associated with ribosomes, smooth ER produces lipids
• Chloroplasts: Site of photosynthesis in plant cells
• Plastids: Store pigments in plant cells
• Lysosomes: Digest food and waste materials
• Vacuoles: Storage compartments in plant and animal cells

Enzymes and Function

• Enzymes speed up chemical reactions in the body.
• They control processes such as digestion and muscle growth, and are essential for maintaining bodily functions and homeostasis.
• Enzymes work by binding to substrates to form enzyme-substrate complexes, breaking bonds between substrate molecules and thus speeding up the reaction.

Cell Theory

• All organisms consist of one or more cells.
• Cells arise from pre-existing cells.
• Cells are the basic structural and functional units of life

Unit 2: Cellular Processes

• Substances move in and out of cells through the cell membrane to maintain homeostasis.
• Key questions include: Why is homeostasis important at the cellular level? How do changing conditions impact homeostasis? How do cell parts work together to transport molecules?

Homeostasis

• Homeostasis is the balance and stability that our body maintains to function properly.
• It's like an internal "autopilot" that regulates variables such as body temperature, blood sugar level, and pH.

Phospholipid Bilayer

• The cell membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer.
• This bilayer consists of two layers of phospholipids, with the hydrophilic heads facing outward and the hydrophobic tails facing inward.

Transport

• Passive Transport:
• Diffusion: Movement of substances down a concentration gradient (high to low concentration)
• Examples: Oxygen, Carbon dioxide
• Facilitated Diffusion: Passive transport aided by transport proteins
• Active Transport:
• Movement of substances against a concentration gradient (low to high concentration) using energy (ATP)
• Examples: Sodium-potassium pump, glucose uptake.

Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

• Photosynthesis:
• Plants take in CO2 and release O2
• Converts light energy into chemical energy
• Cellular Respiration:
• Organisms take in O2 and release CO2
• Converts chemical energy into usable energy for life processes

Unit 3: DNA Structure and Cell Cycle

• Cell division is the basis of growth in multicellular organisms.
• Key questions include: How important is DNA replication for organism growth? What is each stage of the cell cycle important for? What can disrupt the cell cycle?

DNA Structure

• DNA is a double-helix structure made of nucleotides (sugar, phosphate, and base)
• Complementary base pairing (A-T, C-G)
• DNA holds the genetic code to create proteins

The Cell Cycle

• Interphase: The cell grows and replicates its DNA
• G1: Cell growth.
• S: DNA synthesis.
• G2: More growth and preparation for mitosis.
• Mitosis: The cell divides its DNA and cytoplasm
• Mitosis Stages:
• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase
• Cytokinesis: Final stage of cell division, splitting the cell membrane

Mitosis

• A process of somatic cell division
• Stages are prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase, resulting in two identical (diploid) daughter cells.

Cancer

• Uncontrolled cell growth

Unit 4: Role of Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis

• The sequence of nitrogenous bases in genes determines traits.
• Protein synthesis creates proteins from DNA and RNA.
• Key questions include: How does the order of nucleotides determine a trait? What are the structures and processes of transcription? What are the structures and processes of translation?

Protein Synthesis

• The process of creating proteins from DNA instructions

Transcription

• The process of copying DNA instructions into RNA

Translation

• The process of using RNA instructions to build proteins

Unit 5: Gene Expression

• Genes are expressed in response to internal or environmental factors, affecting cell differentiation.
• Key questions include: How does gene expression lead to cell differentiation and specialization? What role do environmental factors play in cell differentiation?

Cell Differentiation

• Cells become specialized through the expression of proteins

Unit 6: Genetics

• Overarching Understandings: Scientific investigations reveal patterns connecting phenomena used to design solutions; systems' functions depend on parts and interdependence.
• Key Questions include: How is a pattern identified? What relationships occur between patterns and predictions? How are the patterns used to make sense of phenomena and to justify claims? How do parts of a system depend on each other? How do parts work together?

Types of Inheritance

• Monohybrid Crosses: Inheritance of a single trait
• Dihybrid Crosses: Inheritance of two traits
• Incomplete Dominance: Heterozygous phenotype is a blend
• Codominance: Both alleles show in the heterozygous phenotype
• X-linked Traits: Gene carried on the X chromosome, males are more susceptible
• Pedigree Analysis: Charting inheritance patterns across generations to track traits

Mutations

• Alterations in DNA sequences; can be substitutions, insertions, or deletions. These changes can impact protein synthesis and thus cellular function and phenotypes.