Biology Quiz: Origins of Life and Prokaryotes
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Questions and Answers

What is the estimated age of Earth based on meteorite analysis?

  • 3.8 billion years
  • 4.2 billion years
  • 4.54 billion years (correct)
  • 5 billion years

What criteria were historically used to classify living organisms into five kingdoms?

  • Absence or presence of a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles (correct)
  • Types of genetic material present
  • Presence of photosynthesis
  • Ability to reproduce sexually or asexually

What type of organisms were primarily able to thrive in the early anoxic atmosphere of Earth?

  • Cyanobacteria
  • Aerobic organisms
  • Anaerobic organisms (correct)
  • Phototrophic organisms

What are the three domains proposed by Carl Woese?

<p>Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of organisms are known for converting solar energy into chemical energy?

<p>Phototrophs (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes prokaryotes?

<p>They lack both a nucleus and true membrane-bound organelles. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What significant event did cyanobacteria initiate in Earth's atmosphere?

<p>The oxygenation of the atmosphere (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Where are prokaryotes most likely to thrive?

<p>In extreme environments like boiling hot springs and frozen regions (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Where were the first organisms likely to flourish on early Earth?

<p>In ocean depths or beneath the surface (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did the comparison of nucleotide sequences of small-subunit ribosomal RNA lead to in the classification of life?

<p>A new grouping of organisms into three domains (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic did the first prokaryotic organisms likely possess?

<p>They were adapted to high temperatures (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following accurately represents a characteristic of Eukarya?

<p>They have membrane-bound organelles and a nucleus. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a major environmental condition on Earth during the first 2 billion years?

<p>Strong volcanic activity (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How long ago did prokaryotes first appear on Earth according to current estimates?

<p>Approximately 3.9 billion years ago (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How long after the formation of Earth did cyanobacteria evolve?

<p>Within 1 billion years (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of prokaryotes makes them significantly different from each other and eukaryotes?

<p>Structural differences in cell membranes and rRNA (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary energy source for phototrophs?

<p>Sunlight (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about pathogenic prokaryotes is true?

<p>All pathogenic prokaryotes are Bacteria. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What historical understanding did cultures have regarding diseases before scientific advancements?

<p>Diseases were believed to be a form of spiritual punishment. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What significant historical event was associated with the plague of Athens?

<p>The Great Peloponnesian War (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary impact of public sanitation efforts on bacterial infections?

<p>They have significantly reduced mortality rates. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is referred to as zoonosis?

<p>A disease that is transmitted from animals to humans. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How has the development of antibiotics affected mortality rates from bacterial infections?

<p>It has significantly decreased mortality rates. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the effects of the plague of Athens on the city?

<p>Weakened Athens' dominance and power. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a key factor that contributed to the success of aerobic organisms on Earth?

<p>Efficiency of aerobic respiration (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the endosymbiotic theory primarily concerned with?

<p>The origin of eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic cells (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role did Lynn Margulis play in the context of eukaryotic origins?

<p>She examined the endosymbiotic hypothesis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which cellular organelle is believed to have originated from a free-living aerobic prokaryote?

<p>Mitochondria (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of genes appear closely related to those found in Archaea?

<p>Nuclear eukaryotic genes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is true regarding mitochondria?

<p>They exist as moving, fusing, and dividing structures. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many mitochondria can eukaryotic cells contain?

<p>Up to several thousand (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a major ongoing area of research in biology related to eukaryotic origins?

<p>Clarifying the steps of the endosymbiotic process (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What structural feature of mitochondria resembles the surface of certain bacteria?

<p>Cristae in the inner membrane (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process do mitochondria use to divide?

<p>Binary fission (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which pigment is primarily found in chloroplasts and is essential for photosynthesis?

<p>Chlorophyll (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do both mitochondria and chloroplasts share regarding their genetic material?

<p>Circular DNA chromosomes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following organelles are found only in a subset of eukaryotes?

<p>Chloroplasts (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What evolutionary event is suggested to have led to the formation of plastids?

<p>Endosymbiosis with a photosynthetic cyanobacterium (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of organelle is a chloroplast classified as?

<p>Plastid (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about the evolution of mitochondria and plastids is correct?

<p>Mitochondria likely evolved before plastids. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do photosynthetic protists, such as dinoflagellates, play in coral reefs?

<p>They serve as primary producers of nutrition for other organisms. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process occurs when corals lose their algal pigments?

<p>Coral bleaching (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why do reef-building corals not thrive in waters deeper than 20 meters?

<p>Insufficient light prevents dinoflagellates from photosynthesizing. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of saprobic protists?

<p>They absorb nutrients from dead organisms. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do certain protists assist termites in digestion?

<p>By breaking down cellulose through symbiotic bacteria. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is true about the photosynthesis conducted by protists?

<p>One-quarter of the world's photosynthesis is performed by protists. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do coral polyps gain from their symbiotic relationship with dinoflagellates?

<p>Nutrients and a protective environment. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes a function of photosynthetic dinoflagellates?

<p>Providing energy to coral polyps. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are microbial mats primarily composed of?

<p>Prokaryotes, mainly bacteria and archaea (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do microbial mats typically obtain their energy?

<p>From photosynthesis and chemical sources (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic differentiates stromatolites from other sedimentary structures?

<p>Formed by prokaryotes precipitating minerals from water (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Where can living stromatolites still be found today?

<p>In the Anza-Borrego Desert State Park, California (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are microbial mats held together by?

<p>A gummy-like substance secreted by the prokaryotes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which metabolic pathway became available to some prokaryotes in microbial mats about 3 billion years ago?

<p>Photosynthesis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What important role might the study of microbial mats play in our understanding of life beyond Earth?

<p>They could be used to identify potential forms of life on Mars. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the age of the oldest fossil evidence of microbial mats?

<p>Around 3.5 billion years ago (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What significant contribution did cyanobacteria make to the Earth's atmosphere?

<p>They increased oxygen concentrations. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of atmosphere existed on Earth during the first 2 billion years?

<p>An anoxic atmosphere (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic did the first organisms likely possess to survive on early Earth?

<p>Resistance to high temperatures (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How long after the formation of Earth did cyanobacteria evolve?

<p>Approximately 1 billion years (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of organisms were the first to thrive on Earth when conditions were harsh?

<p>Anaerobic organisms (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes organisms that can grow without oxygen?

<p>Anaerobic (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What major geological activity was common on early Earth?

<p>Intense volcanic activity (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of organisms are known for converting solar energy into chemical energy?

<p>Phototrophs (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure in prokaryotic cells is responsible for protein synthesis?

<p>Ribosomes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What shape do bacilli prokaryotes take?

<p>Rod-shaped (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following features is NOT typically found in prokaryotic cells?

<p>Nucleus (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the capsule play in some prokaryotic species?

<p>Aids in attachment and prevents dehydration (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes the composition of cell walls in Bacteria from Archaea?

<p>Compounds used in synthesis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which additional structure can be found in some prokaryotes that aids in locomotion?

<p>Flagella (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Where is the genetic material of prokaryotic cells primarily located?

<p>Nucleoid (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about plasmids is true?

<p>Plasmids are often involved in antibiotic resistance. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do certain species of bacteria play in bioremediation of mercury?

<p>They convert mercury to non-toxic forms. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about oil spills and prokaryotes is true?

<p>Prokaryotes are critical in the degradation of hydrocarbons in oil spills. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria assist in the cleanup of an oil spill?

<p>By breaking down oil into inorganic compounds. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In bioremediation, why are inorganic nutrients added to an environment affected by oil spills?

<p>To promote the growth of oil-consuming bacteria. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of mercury is known to be non-toxic to humans after the biotransformation process?

<p>Hg0 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one significant challenge when removing aromatic hydrocarbons from oil spills?

<p>They are more resistant to breakdown by bacteria. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of genetically engineering bacteria for bioremediation?

<p>To enhance their ability to consume petroleum products. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which oil spill serves as an example of bioremediation in response to a significant environmental disaster?

<p>The Exxon Valdez spill in Alaska. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes protists from organisms classified in the kingdoms Animalia, Fungi, and Plantae?

<p>They were historically grouped due to not fitting established kingdom criteria. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does genetic research affect the classification of protists?

<p>It has led to the reassignment of some protists to different kingdoms. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant characteristic of protists?

<p>They display a tremendous diversity of morphologies and ecologies. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes the habitat range of protists?

<p>They occupy a variety of aquatic and terrestrial environments. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do some protists play in ecological systems?

<p>They function as important decomposers and food sources. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is the estimated number of protist species considered uncertain?

<p>There may be many undiscovered species related to symbiotic relationships. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which protist is an example of a large multicellular organism?

<p>Kelps (Chromalveolata) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one way protists contribute to food webs?

<p>They serve as a food source for various aquatic organisms. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one primary characteristic of fungi that distinguishes them from plants?

<p>Fungi use complex organic compounds for energy. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements regarding the classification of fungi is accurate?

<p>Fungi are classified under the kingdom Fungi. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do saprobic species, such as fungi, play in the ecosystem?

<p>They contribute to the breakdown of dead organic matter. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do fungi primarily reproduce?

<p>Through both asexual and sexual reproduction. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What significant contribution do fungi provide to the pharmaceutical industry?

<p>Development of antibiotics like penicillin. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following groups does not belong to the kingdom Fungi?

<p>Cyanobacteria. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes fungi from eukaryotic organisms in terms of nutrition?

<p>Fungi are heterotrophic and absorb nutrients. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following accurately describes the cellular structure of fungi?

<p>Fungal cells contain membrane-bound organelles. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Age of Earth

The Earth is approximately 4.54 billion years old.

Early Earth's Atmosphere

Early Earth's atmosphere lacked oxygen (anoxic).

Phototrophs

Organisms that convert solar energy to chemical energy.

Cyanobacteria

Blue-green algae evolved from early phototrophs and oxygenated the atmosphere.

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Anaerobic organisms

Organisms that can live without oxygen.

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First Prokaryotes

Early life forms adapted to harsh conditions (high temps, radiation).

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Oxygenation of atmosphere

The process of adding oxygen to the atmosphere.

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Early Earth Radiation

Strong radiation likely influenced where life formed.

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Prokaryotic Domains

Life forms lacking a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, including Bacteria and Archaea.

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Eukaryotic Domain

Life forms with a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, including animals, plants, and fungi.

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Domains of life

The three major lineages of life on Earth: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.

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Prokaryotes

Single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.

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Eukarya

The domain including organisms with complex cells, including protists, fungi, plants, and animals.

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SSU rRNA

Small-subunit ribosomal RNA, a molecule used to study evolutionary relationships between organisms.

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Carl Woese

Scientist who, along with colleagues, proposed the three-domain system of classifying life forms.

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Ubiquitous Prokaryotes

The widespread nature of prokaryotes in many different environments, including extreme conditions.

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Phototrophs

Prokaryotes that get energy from sunlight.

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Chemotrophs

Prokaryotes that get energy from chemical compounds.

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Pathogenic Prokaryotes

Disease-causing bacteria.

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Bacterial Diseases

Illnesses caused by bacteria.

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Zoonoses

Diseases that spread from animals to humans.

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Antibiotics

Drugs that kill or weaken bacteria.

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Plague of Athens

A devastating pandemic in ancient Athens.

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Historical perspective of disease

Understanding how the cause of disease has been understood over time.

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Aerobic Respiration

A more efficient way of getting energy from food molecules. It uses oxygen.

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Endosymbiotic Theory

Eukaryotic cells evolved from one prokaryotic cell taking in another and living together.

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Mitochondria

Energy-producing organelles in eukaryotic cells.

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Eukaryotic Cells

Cells containing a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.

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Prokaryotic cells

Cells without a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles

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Lynn Margulis

Scientist who developed the endosymbiotic theory.

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Evolutionary Process

The gradual change in species over time.

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Oxygenated atmosphere

An atmosphere containing significant amounts of oxygen.

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Photosynthetic Protists

Protists that use sunlight to create food through photosynthesis, crucial for energy transfer in aquatic ecosystems.

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Coral Bleaching

The loss of algal pigments in corals, a consequence of symbiotic relationships breaking down.

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Symbiotic Relationship

A mutually beneficial interaction between two different species.

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Primary Producers (protists)

Protists that form the base of the food web in aquatic ecosystems, creating food for other organisms.

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Saprobic Protists (protists)

Protists that get nutrition by decomposing dead matter.

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Zooxanthellae

Dinoflagellates that live in symbiotic relationships with coral polyps.

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Coral Reefs

Structures built by coral polyps, supported by symbiotic relationship with dinoflagellates.

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Decomposition Protists

Protists that break down dead organisms and organic matter, returning nutrients to the ecosystem.

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Mitochondria Structure

Mitochondria are shaped like bacteria, enclosed by two membranes, with inner membrane infoldings called cristae resembling bacterial structures.

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Mitochondrial Reproduction

Mitochondria reproduce through a process similar to binary fission, a type of prokaryotic cell division.

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Mitochondrial DNA

Mitochondria possess their own circular DNA, containing genes similar to bacterial genes.

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Mitochondria Ribosomes/tRNA

Mitochondria have ribosomes and transfer RNAs that resemble prokaryotic versions, further supporting their prokaryotic origins.

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Endosymbiotic Origin of Mitochondria

Mitochondria are believed to have evolved from free-living prokaryotes that were engulfed by a larger cell, a process known as endosymbiosis.

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Plastid Structure

Plastids, like chloroplasts, are plant organelles with shapes similar to cyanobacteria and contain multiple membranes, matching the structure of cyanobacteria.

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Plastid Reproduction

Plastids, like mitochondria, reproduce by a process akin to prokaryotic cell division (binary fission).

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Endosymbiotic Origin of Plastids

Plastids evolved from the endosymbiotic relationship between an ancestral cell and a photosynthetic cyanobacterium.

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Earth's age

The estimated age of Earth is approximately 4.54 billion years.

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Early Earth atmosphere

The early atmosphere had no oxygen; it was ‘anoxic’

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Phototrophs

Organisms that use light energy to make food.

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Cyanobacteria

Early photosynthetic bacteria that oxygenated the atmosphere

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Anaerobic organisms

Organisms that live without oxygen.

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First prokaryotes

Early life forms adapted to harsh conditions.

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Oxygenation of the atmosphere

The process of adding oxygen to the atmosphere.

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Early Earth radiation

Strong radiation affected where life formed.

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Microbial Mat

A multi-layered sheet of prokaryotes, mostly bacteria and archaea, often a few centimeters thick, growing on moist surfaces.

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Hydrothermal Vent

A fissure in the Earth's surface releasing geothermally heated water.

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Stromatolite

A sedimentary rock structure formed when minerals are precipitated by prokaryotes in a microbial mat, often layered.

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Early Life Energy Source

Early microbial mats likely used energy from hydrothermal vents, later utilizing sunlight with the evolution of photosynthesis.

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Fossilized Microbial Mats

Physical evidence of ancient microbial mats, used to study early life on Earth.

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Prokaryotes

Single-celled organisms without a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles, like bacteria and archaea.

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Metabolic Pathways

Different chemical processes used by organisms to obtain energy and nutrients.

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Earliest Evidence of Life

Microbial mats provide the oldest fossil evidence of life, dating back ~3.5 billion years.

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Bioremediation of Mercury

Using living organisms (like bacteria) to remove harmful substances (like mercury) from the environment.

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Mercury's Toxicity

Mercury builds up in living things and is harmful at low levels.

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Biotransformation of Mercury

Bacteria convert harmful mercury to a harmless form.

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Oil Spill Bioremediation

Using bacteria to break down oil in spills.

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Hydrocarbon-Degrading Bacteria

Bacteria that eat oil, breaking it down into simpler substances.

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Inorganic Nutrients in Bioremediation

Adding nutrients to help bacteria grow and break down oil.

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Natural Bioremediation

Oil-consuming bacteria naturally present break down oil spills.

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Genetically Engineered Bacteria

Bacteria modified to better clean up oil spills.

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Prokaryotic Cell Shape

Prokaryotes (like bacteria) come in three main shapes: cocci (spherical), bacilli (rod-shaped), and spirilla (spiral-shaped).

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Prokaryotic Cell Structure (Basic)

Prokaryotic cells lack membrane-bound organelles, but have plasma membrane, cytoplasm, genetic material (DNA/RNA) and ribosomes.

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Prokaryotic Cell Wall

Most prokaryotes have a cell wall outside the plasma membrane, which provides protection and shape, and its composition differs between Bacteria and Archaea.

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Prokaryotic Capsule

Some prokaryotes have a capsule—a sticky layer that helps them stick to surfaces and prevents dehydration.

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Prokaryotic Flagella

Some prokaryotes have flagella which are used for movement.

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Prokaryotic Pili

Some prokaryotes have pili. These are used for attachment to surfaces and other bacteria.

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Prokaryotic Plasmids

Many prokaryotes contain plasmids - small, circular DNA pieces separate from the main chromosome.

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Nucleoid Region

In prokaryotes, the DNA is located in a region called the nucleoid, which is not enclosed by a membrane.

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Protists

Eukaryotic organisms that don't fit neatly into the Animalia, Fungi, or Plantae kingdoms. They're diverse, including single-celled and multicellular forms.

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Protist characteristics

Protists display a wide range of morphologies (shapes), physiologies (functions), and ecologies (environments).

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Protists as food sources

Some protists serve as food for other organisms in aquatic environments (and sometimes on land).

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Protists as decomposers

Some protists break down dead organisms and organic matter, returning nutrients to the environment.

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Protist Diversity

There are over 100,000 known protist species, with unknown numbers possibly existing.

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Symbiotic relationships

Many protists live in close relationships with other organisms, often specific to a particular species.

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Protist classification

Molecular genetics has shown protists are sometimes more closely related to animals, plants, or fungi than other protists, leading to shifts in their kingdoms.

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Multicellular Protists

Some protists aren't microscopic; they can be very large, like kelps.

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Fungi Characteristics

Fungi are eukaryotes that use organic compounds for energy. They reproduce asexually or sexually, primarily through spores dispersed by the wind.

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Fungal Parasites/Pathogens

Some fungi harm plants and infect humans, causing diseases.

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Fungi's Environmental Importance

Fungi are crucial decomposers breaking down organic matter, recycling carbon, and maintaining ecosystem health.

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Fungi in Food/Beverages

Fungi play a vital role in processing foods and beverages, like in bread making and cheese production.

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Fungi in Industry

Fungi are used to produce medicines and chemicals, in the pharmaceutical and chemical sectors.

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Fungi's Relation to Animals/Plants

Fungi are more closely related to animals than plants, as revealed by DNA comparisons.

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Fungi Nutritional Source

Fungi obtain their energy and carbon from complex organic compounds, not from sunlight like plants.

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Fungal Diversity

Fungi are incredibly diverse, with over 1.5 million species likely on Earth. Many are undiscovered.

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Study Notes

Diversity of Microbes, Fungi, and Protists

  • Living things are diverse, ranging from single-celled bacteria to multicellular organisms
  • Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
  • Three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya
  • Prokaryotes were the first inhabitants on Earth (approximately 3.9 billion years ago)
  • Prokaryotes are ubiquitous, found in harsh and benign environments
  • Prokaryotes are essential in nutrient cycles, decomposing organisms, and thriving in living organisms
  • Photosynthetic organisms (phototrophs) use sunlight for energy
  • Chemotrophs use chemical compounds for energy
  • Microbial mats (multi-layered prokaryotes) are early life forms
  • Extremophiles thrive in extreme conditions
  • Biofilms are microbial communities, often found in industrial settings, and are resistant to sterilization
  • Prokaryotes come in three categories: cocci, bacilli, and spirilla
  • Prokaryotic cells lack organelles, containing circular DNA (nucleoid), cell walls, and potentially capsules or flagella
  • Cell walls differ in structure between bacteria and archaea
  • Gram-positive bacteria have thick cell walls of peptidoglycan; Gram-negative bacteria have thin cell walls with outer membranes
  • Prokaryotes reproduce asexually via binary fission, altering their genetic makeup through transformation, transduction, or conjugation
  • Bacterial infections (e.g., bubonic plague, typhoid fever) have impacted human history
  • Antibiotics have been used as cures for bacterial infections, leading to antibiotic resistance
  • Antibiotic resistance in livestock is a major concern
  • Foodborne diseases are caused by consuming contaminated food (e.g., botulism, E. coli)

Eukaryotic Origins

  • Prokaryotic cells were the earliest on Earth (3.5 billion years ago)
  • Eukaryotic cells emerged approximately 2.1 billion years ago
  • Endosymbiotic theory suggests that mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from engulfed prokaryotes
  • Mitochondria have their own circular DNA, ribosomes, and membranes, resembling bacteria
  • Chloroplasts also have their own DNA and ribosomes, resembling cyanobacteria
  • Eukaryotes have a more complex cellular organization than prokaryotes
  • Eukaryotes have a true nucleus and a complex system of internal membranes.

Protists

  • Protists are eukaryotes that do not fit into the animal, plant, or fungus kingdoms
  • Protists are incredibly diverse in morphology, physiology, and ecology
  • Many are unicellular, some are multicellular
  • Some are photosynthetic, others are heterotrophic
  • Protists reproduce via asexual or sexual methods with varying complexity
  • Some protists are pathogenic parasites (e.g., Plasmodium, Trypanosoma)
  • Protists play important roles in nutrient cycles
  • Some protists serve as food sources for other organisms

Fungi

  • Fungi are eukaryotes, with complex cellular organization
  • The vegetative body (thallus) can be unicellular (yeasts) or multicellular (hyphae forming a mycelium)
  • Cell walls are composed of chitin and glucan, not cellulose
  • Fungi are heterotrophic; they consume organic materials through exoenzymes
  • Fungi reproduce via spores, which disperse in various ways (e.g., wind, animals)
  • Fungi cause plant diseases (e.g., Smuts, Rusts, powdery mildew) and animal diseases (e.g., athlete's foot, ringworm)
  • Fungi are vital decomposers, returning nutrients to the environment
  • Fungi are essential in food production (e.g., fermentation, cheese production)
  • Some fungi are used in producing antibiotics or other industrial compounds

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