Biology Quiz on Hormones and Cellular Processes
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Questions and Answers

Which part of the adrenal gland produces cortisol?

  • Adrenal medulla
  • Adrenal cortex (correct)
  • Both the cortex and the medulla
  • Neither the cortex nor the medulla

    • Alpha sheets are stabilized by hydrogen bonds between adjacent strands.

    False (B)

    Name the primary energy carrier in all living organisms.

    ATP

    The formation of ATP primarily occurs in the ______ and chloroplasts.

    <p>mitochondria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following hormones with the gland that produces them:

    <p>Cortisol = Adrenal cortex Adrenaline = Adrenal medulla Aldosterone = Adrenal cortex Noradrenaline = Adrenal medulla</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the common symptoms of blood glucose fluctuations?

    <p>Blurred vision (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The brain is composed of neurons, synapses, and neural pathways.

    <p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of structure forms from beta sheets?

    <p>pleated sheet</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a main organ of the excretory system?

    <p>Lungs (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Exocytosis is a passive cellular process.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of mutation occurs when nucleotides are added or deleted not in multiples of three?

    <p>frameshift mutation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process of maintaining stability while adjusting to changing external conditions is called ______.

    <p>homeostasis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following fat types with their health implications:

    <p>Saturated fats = Can raise cholesterol levels Unsaturated fats = Can lower cholesterol levels Trans fats = Increase the risk of heart disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process involves the separation and removal of solid particles from a fluid?

    <p>Filtration (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The formation of urine only involves the process of filtration.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is responsible for higher-level thinking processes?

    <p>Cerebral cortex (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the chemical messengers used in hormonal regulation?

    <p>hormones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cellular respiration is an anaerobic process.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Specific clusters of atoms in a molecule's structure that dictate its properties are known as ______.

    <p>functional groups</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following processes with their definitions:

    <p>Filtration = Separation of solid particles from fluid Reabsorption = Reclaiming essential substances from filtrate Secretion = Moving substances into the filtrate Excretion = Elimination of waste from the body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main enzyme of the Calvin cycle?

    <p>rubisco</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these is a common example of a functional group?

    <p>Carboxyl (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In ionic bonding, electrons are ______ between atoms.

    <p>transferred</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their descriptions:

    <p>Cerebrum = Higher brain functions Cerebellum = Balance and coordination Brainstem = Regulates essential functions Spinal cord = Relays signals between brain and body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hydrolysis reactions involve combining two molecules into one through the use of water.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main role of the skin in excretion?

    <p>eliminating waste products through sweat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process by which the brain's structures change and adapt?

    <p>Neuroplasticity (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    CAM plants open their stomata during the day to absorb carbon dioxide directly.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The kidneys filter the blood and produce ______.

    <p>urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their associated body systems:

    <p>Urea = Excretory System Nasal passages = Respiratory System Triglycerides = Digestive System Insulin = Endocrine System</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where does the Calvin cycle occur in the chloroplast?

    <p>stroma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process of removing an amino group from an amino acid is called ______.

    <p>deamination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following carbohydrate classifications with examples:

    <p>Monosaccharide = Glucose Disaccharide = Sucrose Polysaccharide = Starch</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a stage of cellular respiration?

    <p>Calvin cycle (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The central dogma of protein synthesis states that genetic information flows from RNA to DNA to proteins.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?

    <p>transmit signals to and from the CNS</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In covalent bonding, electrons are ______ between atoms.

    <p>shared</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following processes with their location:

    <p>Transcription = Nucleus Translation = Cytoplasm Citric acid cycle = Mitochondria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a function regulated by the hypothalamus?

    <p>Production of digestive enzymes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Initiation is only relevant in the context of protein synthesis.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the functional unit of the kidney called?

    <p>nephron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ________ hormones can pass easily through cell membranes to bind to intracellular receptors.

    <p>Lipid-soluble</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following functions to the correct organ:

    <p>Detoxification = Liver Hormone Production and Blood Filtration = Kidney Regulation of body temp = Hypothalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which macromolecule primarily functions in energy storage and insulation?

    <p>Lipids (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Membrane potential is the same in every type of cell.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for an alteration in the DNA sequence of a gene?

    <p>mutation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The monthly process in females where the uterus prepares for pregnancy is known as the _______.

    <p>menstrual cycle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the phase of the menstrual cycle with its description:

    <p>Menstrual phase = Shedding of the uterine lining Follicular phase = Preparation of an egg for ovulation Luteal phase = Preparation of the uterus for implantation Ovulation = Release of an egg from the ovary</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a function of the kidneys?

    <p>Production of digestive enzymes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Mosaic Model of the cell membrane suggests that proteins are fixed in place.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the study of how genetic information is stored and transferred at a molecular level called?

    <p>molecular genetics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ________ hormones have slower but longer lasting effects than water-soluble hormones.

    <p>Lipid-soluble</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the macromolecule to its primary function.

    <p>Proteins = Catalysis, cell structure Nucleic acids = Genetic information storage Carbohydrates = Energy source, cell recognition Lipids = Energy storage, cell membrane structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a function of the nephron?

    <p>Producing red blood cells (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Positive feedback loops always lead to a desired outcome, not an over amplification of an effect.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of genetic information do nucleic acids store and transmit?

    <p>genetic information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The central nervous system consists of the brain and the ______.

    <p>spinal cord</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following nitrogenous waste products with their toxicity and water requirement for excretion:

    <p>Ammonia = High toxicity, high water requirement Urea = Medium toxicity, medium water requirement Uric acid = Low toxicity, low water requirement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which example demonstrates a positive feedback mechanism?

    <p>Blood clotting (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mutations in tumor suppressor genes can lead to uncontrolled cell growth, which may cause cancer.

    <p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the lac operon?

    <p>lactose metabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A key function of the Golgi apparatus is to modify and ______ molecules within the cell.

    <p>package</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match each organelle with its primary function:

    <p>Nucleus = Stores genetic material (DNA) Mitochondria = Generates energy (ATP) Endoplasmic Reticulum = Synthesizes proteins and lipids Lysosomes = Digests cellular waste</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What crucial role do neurotransmitters play in neural communication?

    <p>Relaying signals between neurons (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Osmoregulation is only needed in aquatic organisms, not in land animals.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two main categories of nucleic acids?

    <p>DNA and RNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process by which living organisms control water and solute concentration is known as ______.

    <p>osmoregulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match each part of the nephron with its function:

    <p>Glomerulus = Filtration of blood Proximal tubule = Reabsorption of nutrients Loop of Henle = Concentration of urine Collecting duct = Collection of urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone plays a key role in osmoregulation by controlling water reabsorption in the kidneys?

    <p>Vasopressin (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fermentation is more efficient in ATP production than oxidative respiration.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process separates DNA segments based on size in order to visualize DNA bands?

    <p>gel electrophoresis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The parathyroid glands produce the hormone ______, which regulates calcium levels in the blood.

    <p>PTH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the peripheral nervous system?

    <p>To transmit sensory and motor information (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The hydrophilic tails of phospholipids face inward in the phospholipid bilayer.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the enzyme that is key to the process of photosynthesis?

    <p>RuBisCO</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The autonomic nervous system controls ______ functions.

    <p>involuntary</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What component of a phospholipid makes it amphipathic?

    <p>Hydrophilic 'head' and hydrophobic 'tails' (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The pituitary gland is located in the neck.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process utilizes light energy in plants to produce glucose?

    <p>photosynthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    PCR requires a ______ to carry out cycles such as denaturation, annealing, and extension.

    <p>thermal cycler</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these is NOT a function of the parathyroid hormone?

    <p>Lowers blood calcium levels (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following steps with their purpose in cellular respiration:

    <p>Glycolysis = Breakdown of glucose into pyruvate Citric acid cycle = Production of electron carriers Electron transport chain = Generation of ATP using oxygen Fermentation = Regeneration of NAD+ without oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the primary function of the sympathetic nervous system?

    <p>Stimulating the 'fight-or-flight' response (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Restriction endonucleases are primarily found in viruses?

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process where substances filtered by the kidneys are returned to the bloodstream?

    <p>reabsorption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A change in a single nucleotide base within a DNA sequence is known as a ______ mutation.

    <p>point</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following descriptions with the correct mechanism:

    <p>Direct transfer of a phosphate group to ADP = Substrate level phosphorylation ATP generation using the electron transport chain and ATP synthase = Oxidative phosphorylation Occurs in the cytoplasm = Substrate level phosphorylation Requires oxygen = Oxidative phosphorylation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which property of water allows it to dissolve many polar and charged substances?

    <p>Its ability to form hydrogen bonds (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The sandwich model proposes that proteins are located only on the inner side of the phospholipid bilayer?

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the general term for the release of substances by cells such as hormones and enzymes?

    <p>secretion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The specific molecule that binds to an enzyme's active site is called the ______.

    <p>substrate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following nervous system functions with their division:

    <p>Increases heart rate = Sympathetic nervous system Enhances digestive function = Parasympathetic nervous system Dilates airways = Sympathetic nervous system Slows heart rate = Parasympathetic nervous system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a function of proteins?

    <p>Serving as a primary structural component of cell walls (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The anterior pituitary does not receive signals from the hypothalamus?

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the meaning of the term 'termination' in the context of biological processes?

    <p>completion or end</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ice floats on water, because water has a lower ______ as a solid.

    <p>density</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the process with its description.

    <p>Reabsorption = Return of filtered substances to the bloodstream Secretion = Release of substances by cells Substrate level phosphorylation = Direct transfer of a phosphate to ADP Oxidative phosphorylation = ATP generation through electron transport chain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT directly involved in the process of translation?

    <p>RNA Polymerase (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Triglycerides are primarily absorbed through the lungs.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What key element is required for the synthesis of thyroid hormones?

    <p>iodine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The hormone, also known as ADH, regulates water reabsorption by the kidneys, is called the ______.

    <p>antidiuretic hormone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with the correct descriptions:

    <p>Active site = Region on enzyme where substrate binds Action potential = Electrical signal along neuron membrane Adenine = Nucleotide base found in DNA and RNA Alpha sheets = Twisted ribbon shape protein structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the urinary system?

    <p>Filter waste and maintain homeostasis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Water soluble hormones bind to receptors inside the cell.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the enzyme that unwinds the DNA during transcription?

    <p>RNA polymerase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In translation, the genetic code is read in three-base sequences known as ______.

    <p>codons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following hormones with their primary function:

    <p>ADH = Regulates water reabsorption Thyroid hormones = Regulates metabolism Insulin = Regulates blood sugar Glucagon = Increases blood sugar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where does transcription occur?

    <p>Nucleus (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The thyroid gland is located in the chest.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the product of translation?

    <p>protein</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process of releasing a polypeptide chain from the ribosome is called ______.

    <p>termination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following steps in protein synthesis with their description:

    <p>Initiation = Start of protein synthesis Elongation = Amino acid additions to polypeptide chain Termination = Release of the polypeptide chain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes a dehydration reaction?

    <p>A process where water molecules are removed to form a new molecule. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Type 1 diabetes is primarily caused by lifestyle factors such as obesity.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the primary constituents of chromosomes?

    <p>DNA and histone proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During DNA replication, the _______ strand is synthesized discontinuously in fragments.

    <p>lagging</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In protein synthesis, what is the role of elongation?

    <p>To add amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The endocrine system releases hormones through ducts directly onto the target organs.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary molecule that provides energy to cells?

    <p>ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Enzymes lower the ______ energy required for chemical reactions.

    <p>activation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match cell types to their characteristics

    <p>Eukaryotic cells = Have a defined nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Prokaryotic cells = Lack a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a function of the endocrine system?

    <p>Regulating blood pressure from the circulatory system. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Anabolism is a catabolic process.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one of the main types of endocytosis?

    <p>Pinocytosis or Phagocytosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process where urea produced from deamination is transported to the kidneys to be excreted in the ______.

    <p>urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do alpha sheets play in proteins?

    <p>They stabilize and maintain the overall shape of proteins. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ATP is primarily formed from the breakdown of lipids during cellular respiration.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of bond is formed through the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions?

    <p>Ionic bond (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one characteristic feature of C4 plants.

    <p>They utilize a specialized metabolic pathway for carbon dioxide fixation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cytosine pairs with thymine in DNA, forming three hydrogen bonds.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The central dogma describes the flow of genetic information from ____ to ____ to ____.

    <p>DNA, RNA, protein</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following plants with their photosynthesis types:

    <p>C3 plants = Calvin cycle C4 plants = Specialized metabolic pathway CAM plants = Crassulacean acid metabolism Photorespiration = Reduction of efficiency in C3 plants</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of enzymes in biochemical reactions?

    <p>To act as catalysts and accelerate reaction rates.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about catalysts is true?

    <p>Catalysts lower the activation energy of a chemical reaction. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The presence of cytosine in DNA allows for the ______ and decoding of genetic information.

    <p>coding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Beta sheets are a type of secondary structure formed by covalent bonds.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following structures is formed by water molecules as byproducts during dehydration synthesis?

    <p>Water (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following biomolecules with their primary function:

    <p>Proteins = Catalysts in biochemical reactions DNA = Genetic information storage RNA = Protein synthesis Hormones = Chemical messengers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process involves the breaking down of complex molecules into simpler ones?

    <p>Catabolism (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormone does the corpus luteum secrete?

    <p>Progesterone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process generates ATP through the transfer of electrons in mitochondria?

    <p>Electron transport chain (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Negative feedback is a mechanism that amplifies changes in the body.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The energy in ATP is stored in the bond between the second and third ____ groups.

    <p>phosphate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the basic functional unit of the kidney?

    <p>Nephron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Eukaryotic cells lack a distinct nucleus.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following nitrogenous bases with their characteristics:

    <p>Adenine = Pairs with thymine in DNA Cytosine = Pairs with guanine in DNA Guanine = Has a double-ring structure Thymine = Has a single-ring structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain?

    <p>Molecular oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Neurons transmit __________ signals within the nervous system.

    <p>electrical</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following structures is NOT a part of the central nervous system?

    <p>Peripheral nerves (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following neurotransmitters with their primary function:

    <p>Dopamine = Regulates mood and reward Serotonin = Affects sleep and mood Acetylcholine = Stimulates muscle contractions GABA = Inhibitory neurotransmitter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cytosine can undergo spontaneous deamination, leading to its conversion to ______ in DNA.

    <p>uracil</p> Signup and view all the answers

    C4 plants are less efficient than C3 plants in hot and dry conditions.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers negative feedback inhibition in biological systems?

    <p>The end product (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following primary levels of protein structure involves the linear sequence of amino acids?

    <p>Primary structure (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic function of the Central Nervous System?

    <p>Processing and interpreting information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The phospholipid bilayer of a cell membrane is permeable to all substances.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following hormones with their sources:

    <p>Insulin = Pancreas Cortisol = Adrenal glands Thyroxine = Thyroid gland Estrogen = Ovaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A covalent bond is formed when two atoms ____ electrons.

    <p>share</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the loop of Henle in a nephron?

    <p>Reabsorption of water and electrolytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the corpus luteum?

    <p>Maintaining early pregnancy (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What chemical reaction is involved in the synthesis of biomolecules like proteins?

    <p>Both B and C (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ATP is often referred to as the energy currency of cells.

    <p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Gel electrophoresis separates molecules based on their mass and charge.

    <p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The primary function of ovary follicles is to support the growth and maturation of __________.

    <p>eggs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of organisms exhibit eukaryotic cells?

    <p>Plants, animals, fungi, and protists.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following metabolic processes with their descriptions:

    <p>Glycolysis = Breakdown of glucose Krebs Cycle = Produces NADH and FADH2 Oxidative Phosphorylation = Produces ATP using oxygen Photorespiration = Occurs when oxygen is taken in instead of carbon dioxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    PCR, or Polymerase Chain Reaction, is primarily used for what purpose?

    <p>Amplifying DNA sequences (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Acetylcholine is the primary neurotransmitter of the sympathetic nervous system.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the end product of oxidative phosphorylation?

    <p>ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ is responsible for maintaining balance and stability in physiological processes.

    <p>homeostasis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main role of phosphorylation in cells?

    <p>Regulating enzyme activity (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Positive feedback processes are more common in nature than negative feedback processes.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of cells reproduce through binary fission?

    <p>Prokaryotic cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The sympathetic nervous system is part of the _______ nervous system.

    <p>autonomic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following hormones with their characteristics:

    <p>Protein Hormones = Travel freely in the bloodstream Steroid Hormones = Require carrier proteins for transport</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about potential energy is true?

    <p>It is the energy stored in chemical bonds. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Neurons communicate through neurotransmitters released at synapses.

    <p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What biochemical process is characterized by directly synthesizing ATP from a substrate molecule?

    <p>Substrate level phosphorylation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Thymine pairs with _______ in the DNA double helix.

    <p>adenine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following components of a neuron with their functions:

    <p>Dendrites = Receive signals Axon = Send signals Myelin sheath = Insulates axons Axon terminals = Release neurotransmitters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a function of the peripheral nervous system?

    <p>Processing information in the brain (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Triglycerides are primarily used for immediate energy needs.

    <p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process prepares the body for fight or flight responses?

    <p>Sympathetic nervous system activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The specific molecule that an enzyme acts upon is called a _______.

    <p>substrate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following divisions of the nervous system with their primary functions:

    <p>Somatic nerves = Control voluntary functions Autonomic nerves = Control involuntary functions Sensory nerves = Detect external stimuli Motor nerves = Transmit commands to muscles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Adrenal Glands

    • Small endocrine glands located on top of the kidneys
    • Produce and release hormones: adrenaline, cortisol
    • Divided into two parts: adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla
    • Adrenal cortex produces: cortisol, aldosterone, sex hormones
    • Adrenal medulla produces: catecholamines (adrenaline, noradrenaline)
    • Crucial role in stress response, blood pressure, metabolism, and immune function

    Alpha & Beta Sheets

    • Common structural motifs in proteins
    • Alpha sheets: right-handed helix, stabilized by hydrogen bonds within the helix
    • Beta sheets: pleated sheet structure, stabilized by hydrogen bonds between adjacent strands
    • Can be parallel or antiparallel depending on strand direction
    • Contribute to protein stability and function

    ATP Formation

    • Process of generating adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the primary energy carrier
    • Produced mainly through cellular respiration and photosynthesis
    • Used by cells for energy-requiring processes: muscle contraction, active transport, cell division
    • Involves transferring phosphate groups to ADP through phosphorylation
    • Key organelles: mitochondria and chloroplasts

    Blood Glucose Fluctuations

    • Constant changes in blood sugar levels due to diet, exercise, and hormone secretion
    • Maintaining stable levels is crucial for overall health and energy balance
    • Inadequate insulin: high glucose levels
    • Excess insulin: low glucose levels
    • Common symptoms: fatigue, hunger, blurred vision, irritability
    • Regular monitoring and awareness of triggers help manage fluctuations

    Brain Structure

    • Physical organization of the brain and its components (neurons, synapses, neural pathways)
    • Composed of regions responsible for various functions: motor control, memory, emotion
    • Cerebral cortex: outer layer for higher thinking
    • Brainstem: controls essential functions (breathing, heart rate, sleep)
    • Neuroplasticity: brain's ability to change and adapt, enabling learning and memory.

    C3, C4, and CAM Plants

    • Three types of photosynthetic pathways
    • C3: direct CO2 fixation (most trees and grains)
    • C4: two-step CO2 fixation (grasses & some tropical plants)
    • CAM: open stomata at night, photosynthesize during the day (succulents & cacti)
    • C4 and CAM plants are adapted to minimize water loss in arid conditions

    Calvin Cycle

    • Metabolic pathway in chloroplasts' stroma
    • Converts carbon dioxide into glucose (dark/light-independent reaction)
    • Cyclic process with three main stages: carbon fixation, reduction, regeneration
    • Requires ATP and NADPH (products of light-dependent reactions)
    • Main enzyme: RuBisCO (ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase)

    Carbohydrates

    • Organic molecules (C, H, O)
    • Primary energy source
    • Found in foods like bread, rice, fruits
    • Classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides based on sugar unit number
    • Examples:
      • Monosaccharides: glucose, fructose, galactose
      • Disaccharides: lactose, sucrose, maltose
      • Polysaccharides: starch, glycogen, cellulose

    Cellular Respiration

    • Process where cells convert glucose into ATP, releasing energy
    • Three stages: glycolysis, citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation
    • Glycolysis: glucose to pyruvate, small ATP and NADH
    • Citric acid cycle (mitochondria): generates high-energy molecules (NADH, FADH2)
    • Oxidative phosphorylation (inner mitochondrial membrane): transfer electrons to oxygen, producing ATP
    • Aerobic process (requires oxygen)

    Central Dogma of Protein Synthesis

    • Flow of genetic information: DNA to RNA to protein
    • DNA is transcribed into RNA in the nucleus
    • RNA translated into proteins in the cytoplasm
    • DNA sequence determines protein amino acid sequence
    • Transcription (RNA polymerase)
    • Translation (ribosomes, tRNA, mRNA codons)

    Central Nervous System

    • Part of the nervous system, consisting of brain and spinal cord
    • Brain processes information from senses and controls body functions
    • Spinal cord relays signals between brain and body for movement and reflexes
    • Protected by skull, vertebrae, and cerebrospinal fluid

    CNS vs. PNS

    • CNS: brain and spinal cord (processes & integrates information)
    • PNS: nerves outside CNS (transmits signals to and from CNS)
    • CNS: coordinates voluntary movements, interprets sensory information
    • PNS: regulates involuntary actions (heart rate, digestion)
    • Severe functional impairments possible with CNS damage

    Components of the Brain

    • Three main components: cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem
    • Cerebrum: higher brain functions (thinking, memory, actions)
    • Cerebellum: coordinates voluntary movements and balance
    • Brainstem: regulates essential functions (breathing, heart rate)
    • Components work together for complex activities

    Covalent and Ionic Bonding

    • Covalent: sharing electrons, strong bonds, usually nonmetals
    • Ionic: transfer electrons, attraction between oppositely charged ions, metal and nonmetal
    • Covalent bonds typically stronger than ionic bonds

    Deamination

    • Process of removing the amino group (-NH2) from an amino acid
    • Forms ammonia
    • Essential for amino acid breakdown and energy production
    • Ammonia is toxic, converted to urea for excretion
    • Occurs mainly in the liver

    Dehydration Reaction

    • Chemical process where water molecules are removed to create a larger molecule
    • Also known as condensation reaction
    • Opposite of hydrolysis
    • Important in forming biological macromolecules (proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates)

    Diabetes

    • Chronic metabolic disorder characterized by high blood glucose
    • Inability to produce or effectively use insulin
    • Three main types: type 1, type 2, gestational
    • Type 1: autoimmune disease (immune system attacks pancreas cells)
    • Type 2: most common, often due to genetics and lifestyle
    • Gestational: during pregnancy, often resolves after birth

    DNA Organization

    • Arrangement of DNA in cells
    • Condensed into chromosomes, packaged tightly in the nucleus
    • Chromosomes made of DNA wrapped around histone proteins (nucleosomes)
    • Organized at different levels (chromatin fibers, loops, domains)
    • Proteins are crucial for compaction, unwinding, and regulating access to DNA regions

    DNA Replication

    • Process of DNA making an identical copy of itself
    • Occurs during the S phase of the cell cycle
    • Semi-conservative process (each new DNA has one original strand and one new strand)
    • Catalyzed by DNA polymerases
    • Leading strand synthesized continuously, lagging strand in fragments (Okazaki fragments)

    Elongation

    • Process of increasing length in biological items
    • Used in growth and development of living organisms(cells, stems, roots, bones)
    • Protein synthesis stage of adding amino acids to the polypeptide chain
    • Plant growth: stems and roots
    • Bone growth: epiphyseal plate

    Endocrine System

    • System of glands that secrete hormones directly into bloodstream
    • Regulates bodily functions: growth, metabolism, reproduction, stress
    • Includes glands such as pituitary, thyroid, adrenal glands
    • Hormone imbalances can lead to conditions like diabetes, thyroid problems

    Endocytosis

    • Cellular process where substances enter the cell via vesicles
    • Two types: pinocytosis (cell drinking), phagocytosis (cell eating)
    • Uptake of nutrients and removal of substance
    • Involves cellular membrane reshaping and energy consumption

    Energy and Metabolism

    • Processes of acquiring, transforming, and utilizing energy to sustain life in organisms
    • Metabolism: complex biochemical reactions for nutrient conversion
    • Energy storage and release in the form of ATP through cellular respiration
    • Anabolism: building complex molecules from simpler ones
    • Catabolism: breaking down complex molecules

    Enzyme Function

    • Biological molecules that catalyze chemical reactions (speed them up)
    • Lower activation energy
    • Enzymes are specific, catalyze a particular reaction
    • Enzyme structure is not consumed
    • Enzyme activity affected by temperature and pH
    • Regulated by molecules that either activate or inhibit

    Eukaryotic vs. Prokaryotic Cells

    • Eukaryotic: defined nucleus and membrane-bound organelles (plants, animals, fungi, protists)
    • Prokaryotic: lack nucleus and membrane-bound organelles (bacteria and archaea)
    • Eukaryotic cells typically larger and more complex
    • Eukaryotic cell division via mitosis, prokaryotic via binary fission

    Excretion

    • Elimination of waste products and toxins from the body via organs (kidneys, lungs, skin, intestines)
    • Urinary system (kidneys, filtering waste from blood)
    • Respiratory system (removing CO2 and other waste gases)
    • Skin (sweat glands remove waste)
    • Digestive system (eliminating undigested matter and toxins)

    Excretory System

    • Removal of waste products and excess water from the body
    • Maintains homeostasis: regulates substance concentrations in body fluids
    • Main organs: kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra
    • Kidneys filter blood and produce urine
    • Ureters carry urine to the bladder
    • Bladder stores urine, urethra eliminates it

    Exocytosis

    • Cellular process where cells expel substances or waste enclosed in vesicles
    • Vesicles fuse with plasma membrane to release contents towards the exterior
    • Often involved in signaling between cells
    • Active process that requires energy

    Fats (Lipids)

    • Nutrients providing energy and vitamin absorption
    • Triglycerides are the basic units
    • Classified as saturated, unsaturated, and trans fats
    • Saturated fats (animal products) can raise cholesterol
    • Unsaturated fats (plants, fish) are considered healthier
    • Trans fats should be avoided (increase heart disease risk)

    Filtration

    • Separating solid particles or impurities from a fluid or substance (kidneys, lungs etc.)
    • Important process in urinary system (removing waste from blood)
    • Respiratory system (removing dust, particles from air)
    • Industrial uses, such as water treatment

    Formation of Urine

    • Complex process in kidneys via nephrons (filtration, reabsorption, secretion, excretion)
    • Glomerular filtration: filters blood
    • Tubular reabsorption: reclaims water, ions, nutrients
    • Tubular secretion: moves toxins and excess ions into filtrate for removal
    • Urine concentration occurs in collecting ducts (influenced by ADH and aldosterone)

    Frameshift Mutation

    • Addition or deletion of nucleotides (not multiples of 3)
    • Disrupts triplet reading frame
    • Causes altered amino acid sequence (from the mutation point onwards)
    • Often leads to non-functional proteins (premature stop codons)
    • Serious genetic diseases

    Functional Groups

    • Specific clusters of atoms that dictate molecular behavior and properties in biological molecules
    • Part of organic molecules, determining their characteristics and reactions
    • Examples: hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino groups
    • Important roles in enzymatic reactions

    Homeostasis

    • Self-regulating biological process to maintain stability
    • Maintains body temperature, fluid balance, and blood pH
    • Regulatory systems: endocrine and nervous systems
    • Feedback mechanisms (negative and positive) play crucial roles

    Hormonal Regulation

    • Control of physiological processes using chemical messengers (hormones)
    • Hormones produced by glands and released into the bloodstream
    • Hormones act as signals, bind to target cells or organs
    • Maintains homeostasis and proper bodily system functioning
    • Endocrine system (pituitary, thyroid, adrenal glands) plays a key role

    Hormones and Homeostasis

    • Hormones regulate internal balance (homeostasis)
    • Chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands
    • Feedback loops maintain stable internal conditions
    • Important hormones: insulin, cortisol, thyroid hormones
    • Hormone imbalances can lead to health issues like diabetes or thyroid disorders

    Hydrolysis Reaction

    • Chemical reaction using water to break down a compound into smaller components
    • Crucial in food digestion (breaking down large molecules)
    • Requires enzyme catalysis
    • Opposite of dehydration synthesis
    • Important in breaking down biomolecules (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids)

    Hypothalamus

    • Brain region that regulates body functions and behaviors
    • Controls: temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep-wake cycles
    • Influences pituitary gland function via hormones
    • Damage can disrupt homeostasis, hormone production
    • Connected to the limbic system (emotions, motivation)

    Initiation

    • First step in a biological process
    • Triggering of a larger process by a specific event
    • Cell receiving a signal activating genes, initiating gene expression
    • Protein synthesis: small ribosomal subunit binds to mRNA
    • DNA replication: DNA helicase unwinds, RNA primer synthesized

    Kidney Function

    • Filtering blood, regulating electrolytes, maintaining fluid balance, producing hormones (erythropoietin)
    • Nephron is the kidney's functional unit
    • Blood filtered, wastes excreted in urine
    • Regulating blood pressure and acid-base balance
    • Crucial for maintaining homeostasis

    Kidneys

    • Filter waste and excess fluids from blood
    • Regulate acid-base balance, blood pressure, electrolyte levels
    • Contain millions of nephrons for filtering process
    • Produce hormones for red blood cell production and calcium regulation
    • Healthy lifestyle helps prevent kidney problems

    Lipid-Soluble Hormones

    • Hormones easily passing through cell membranes
    • Bind to intracellular receptors to initiate genetic transcription
    • Examples: steroid hormones (cortisol, sex hormones)
    • Slower, longer-lasting effects compared to water-soluble hormones
    • Derived from cholesterol, include testosterone, estrogen
    • Act by altering gene expression

    Liver Function

    • Vital organ for detoxification, protein synthesis, bile production (digestion)
    • Processes nutrients, medications, hormones
    • Stores glycogen, minerals, vitamins
    • Regulates blood clotting
    • Aids in fat breakdown

    Macromolecules

    • Large, complex structures with high molecular weight
    • Proteins: structure, enzymes, signaling
    • Nucleic acids: genetic information (DNA, RNA)
    • Carbohydrates: energy, cell recognition, immune response
    • Lipids: energy storage, insulation, cell membranes

    Membrane Potential

    • Voltage difference across cell's plasma membrane
    • Uneven ion distribution
    • Essential for cellular processes: nerve conduction, muscle contraction
    • Allows for electrical signal generation
    • Neurons rely on membrane potential for information transmission
    • Recorded via electrophysiology methods

    Menstrual Cycle

    • Monthly process in females preparing the uterus for potential pregnancy
    • Hormonal changes, shedding of uterine lining
    • Typically 28 days but can vary
    • Phases: menstrual, follicular, ovulation, luteal
    • Regulated by estrogen and progesterone
    • Irregular cycles warrant discussion with a doctor

    Molecular Genetics

    • Study of genetic information storage, transfer, and expression at a molecular level
    • Covers DNA, RNA, processes of replication, translation, and transcription
    • Affects health and diseases
    • Modern applications: gene therapy, cloning
    • Uses techniques like PCR and DNA sequencing

    Mosaic Model

    • Structure of the cell membrane as a mosaic of proteins and lipids (fluid and dynamic)
    • Emphasizes heterogeneous distribution of lipids and proteins
    • Proteins have diverse roles (transport, signaling, cell recognition)
    • Update of the fluid mosaic model, adding specificity to protein location and function
    • Lateral component movement within the membrane is central to this model

    Mutations

    • Alterations in DNA sequence of a gene
    • Can be natural or induced by environmental factors
    • Can be beneficial, harmful, or neutral
    • Classified into three types: silent, missense, nonsense
    • Crucial for evolution and species diversity

    Mutations and Cancer

    • Mutations contribute to uncontrolled cell growth and cancer development
    • Can occur spontaneously or be induced (UV radiation or chemicals)
    • Mutations in oncogenes or tumor suppressor genes promotes cancer
    • Understanding mutation types & patterns for diagnosis & targeted treatments

    Negative and Positive Feedback

    • Negative: maintains stable internal environment (offsets deviations)
    • Positive: amplifies a response (e.g., blood clotting, childbirth)
    • Negative feedback regulates processes like temperature and blood sugar
    • Positive feedback for quick, strong reactions

    Nephron Functions

    • Functional units of the kidney (filtering blood, regulating electrolytes, maintaining fluid levels)
    • Glomerulus: initial filtration
    • Proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal tubule, collecting duct: reabsorption and secretion
    • Regulates blood pressure and electrolyte balance

    Nervous System

    • Complex network of nerves and cells transmitting signals
    • Regulates and controls all bodily functions
    • Two main parts: central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)
    • CNS includes brain and spinal cord
    • PNS includes nerves connecting CNS to body

    Neural Communication

    • Neurons sending and receiving signals for information transmission
    • Communication via electrical impulses (action potentials)
    • Chemical messengers (neurotransmitters) relay signals between neurons
    • Synapses are the junctions of communication

    Neural Signaling

    • Transmission of electrical impulses along nerve cells
    • Essential for sensory perception, motor function, cognitive processes
    • Communication through synapses, using neurotransmitters
    • Speed depends on myelination and nerve fiber diameter
    • Disruptions can lead to neurological disorders

    Nitrogenous Waste

    • Waste products containing nitrogen, produced by metabolism
    • Needs elimination to prevent toxicity
    • Types: ammonia, urea, uric acid
    • Ammonia is toxic, requires lots of water
    • Uric acid is less toxic, requires less water

    Nucleic Acids

    • Macromolecules storing and transmitting genetic information in cells (DNA, RNA)
    • Made of nucleotides (sugar, phosphate, nitrogenous base)
    • DNA: double-stranded
    • RNA: typically single-stranded
    • Involved in protein synthesis (transcription, translation)
    • Mutations can lead to genetic disorders

    Operons and the Lac Operon

    • Functional units of the genome with related genes under a single promoter
    • Lac operon example (controls lactose metabolism in bacteria)
    • Components: structural genes, regulatory elements, regulatory gene
    • Regulated by repressor protein binding to operator, preventing transcription
    • Displays gene regulation, influence of inducers/inhibitors

    Organelles of Eukaryotic Cells

    • Specialized structures within eukaryotic cells to perform specific functions
    • Examples: nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, cytoskeleton
    • Nucleus: genetic material
    • Mitochondria: energy production
    • Endoplasmic reticulum: protein synthesis
    • Golgi apparatus: molecule modification and packaging
    • Lysosomes: waste digestion
    • Vacuoles: material storage
    • Cytoskeleton: structure, transport

    Osmoregulation

    • Control of water and solute concentration in organisms
    • Essential for proper cell functioning
    • Achieved through specialized structures (kidneys, gills in animals)
    • Plants: stomata, osmotic regulation
    • Humans: vasopressin (regulates water reabsorption)

    Osmoregulation and ADH

    • Control of water and solute concentration in organisms by antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
    • Hypothalamus produces, pituitary releases ADH
    • ADH increases water permeability in kidney collecting ducts
    • High ADH leads to concentrated urine, water conservation
    • Low ADH leads to diluted urine, excess water excretion

    Oxidative Respiration and Fermentation

    • Oxidative respiration: breaks down glucose to produce ATP using oxygen
    • Fermentation: generates ATP without oxygen using glycolysis
    • Oxidative respiration is more efficient at ATP production
    • Both begin with glycolysis, break glucose into pyruvate
    • Oxidative respiration continues to citric acid cycle and electron transport chain
    • Fermentation regenerates NAD+ through different pathways

    Parathyroid Glands

    • Small glands in the neck producing parathyroid hormone (PTH)
    • Regulates blood calcium levels
    • Increases calcium reabsorption from kidneys, calcium release from bones
    • Enhances vitamin D activation for calcium absorption
    • Imbalances lead to hyperparathyroidism or hypoparathyroidism

    PCR and Gel Electrophoresis

    • PCR: amplifies DNA segments
    • Gel electrophoresis: separates DNA fragments by size
    • PCR cycles of heating, cooling to denature, anneal and extend DNA
    • Gel electrophoresis uses an electric field to move DNA fragments through a gel matrix
    • Smaller fragments travel faster, shown as bands (DNA staining dyes)

    Peripheral Nervous System

    • Nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord, connect with the CNS
    • Transmits sensory and motor information between CNS and body
    • Somatic nervous system (voluntary movements)
    • Autonomic nervous system (involuntary functions)
    • Cranial nerves (brain) and spinal nerves (spinal cord)
    • Damage can disrupt sensory perception, muscle control

    Phospholipid Bilayer

    • Fundamental component of cell membranes
    • Two layers of phospholipids (amphipathic: hydrophilic heads, hydrophobic tails)
    • Hydrophilic heads face outward (aqueous environment), hydrophobic tails inward
    • Semi-permeable, regulates molecule passage
    • Flexibility and fluidity are essential for various cellular activities

    Phospholipids

    • Major component of cell membranes (amphipathic)
    • Glycerol molecule, two fatty acids, phosphate group
    • Hydrophilic head, hydrophobic tails make them amphipathic
    • Protect cell contents, signal transmission, lipid transport

    Photorespiration

    • Plant process when RuBisCO binds to oxygen instead of carbon dioxide
    • Reduces photosynthesis efficiency and plant growth
    • Occurs in high temperatures or low CO2
    • Certain plants (C4 & CAM) have adaptations to minimize photorespiration

    Photosynthesis

    • Plants using sunlight to convert water, carbon dioxide, and chlorophyll into chemical energy
    • Occurs in chloroplasts in plant cells
    • Two stages: light-dependent and light-independent reactions
    • Products: glucose and oxygen
    • Crucial for life on Earth

    Pituitary Gland

    • Small pea-sized gland at base of brain
    • Produces and releases hormones regulating bodily functions
    • Two parts: anterior and posterior pituitary
    • Hormones regulate growth, reproduction, metabolism
    • Receives signals from hypothalamus to regulate hormone release

    Point Mutation

    • Change in a single nucleotide in a DNA sequence
    • Can result in different amino acids during protein synthesis
    • Classified as missense, nonsense, or silent
    • Can be random during DNA replication
    • Significant impact from no effect to severe diseases

    Properties of Water

    • Essential for life: universal solvent, high heat capacity, cohesion, adhesion, lower density as a solid
    • Dissolves polar and charged substances
    • Absorbs/releases large heat amounts without significant temperature changes
    • Cohesion/adhesion for surface tension and capillary action
    • Ice floats due to unique molecular structure as a solid

    Proteins

    • Large, complex molecules essential for life
    • Composed of one or more amino acid chains
    • Structure and function determined by amino acid sequence
    • Play crucial roles in cellular processes—structure, transport
    • Deficiency/malfunction can cause diseases like Alzheimer's

    Reabsorption

    • Process of reabsorbing filtered substances into the bloodstream by the kidneys
    • Primarily in renal tubules
    • Maintains water and electrolyte balance
    • Essential for reabsorbing glucose, amino acids, vitamins
    • Hormone aldosterone plays a role in sodium and water reabsorption

    Restriction Endonucleases

    • Enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences
    • Found in bacteria (defense mechanism)
    • Recognize and cleave DNA at specific sequences (sticky or blunt ends)
    • Important in molecular biology (DNA cloning, fingerprinting, gene editing)
    • Classified based on the sequences recognised (Type I, II, III)

    Sandwich Model

    • Cell membrane structure: phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins on both sides
    • Integral proteins span the entire bilayer, peripheral on one side
    • Cholesterol within the bilayer provides stability
    • Helps understand membrane structure and component roles

    Secretion

    • Process where cells release substances (hormones, enzymes, mucus, sweat)
    • Crucial for maintaining homeostasis and bodily functions
    • Removing waste products
    • Mechanisms: exocytosis and active transport
    • Disruptions can cause health conditions

    Substrate & Active Sites

    • Substrate: molecule that binds to enzyme's active site
    • Active site: specific region for substrate binding and reaction
    • Enzyme shape is crucial for substrate recognition (induced fit)
    • Specificity enhances catalytic efficiency
    • Competitive inhibitors block the active site

    Substrate Level Phosphorylation and Oxidative Phosphorylation

    • Substrate level: direct phosphate transfer to ADP to form ATP in the cytoplasm
    • Oxidative: ATP production via electron transport chain and ATP synthase in mitochondria, requiring oxygen

    Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems

    • Sympathetic: fight-or-flight response (increases heart rate, dilates airways)
    • Parasympathetic: rest-and-digest response (slows heart rate, enhances digestion)
    • Work together to maintain homeostasis
    • Imbalance can cause health issues

    Termination

    • Completion of a biological process (DNA replication, transcription, protein synthesis)
    • Controlled by specific signals, proteins
    • Transcription (rho-dependent, rho-independent termination)
    • Protein synthesis: release of the polypeptide chain

    Thyroid Gland

    • Butterfly-shaped gland in the neck, regulating metabolism, growth, development
    • Controlled by hypothalamus and pituitary gland
    • Hormones: thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3)
    • Iodine essential for hormone synthesis
    • Overactive (hyperthyroidism) or underactive (hypothyroidism)

    Transcription

    • DNA sequence converted into RNA sequence by RNA polymerase
    • Stages: initiation, elongation, termination
    • Facilitates protein synthesis
    • RNA polymerase unwinds DNA during transcription

    Transcription and Translation

    • Transcription: DNA to mRNA
    • Translation: mRNA to protein
    • Transcription in nucleus, translation in cytoplasm
    • RNA polymerase for transcription, ribosomes and tRNA for translation
    • Genetic code read in codons; translation errors can cause changes in the resulting protein

    Translation

    • Process of converting mRNA to protein sequence in a cell
    • Occurs in ribosomes, using tRNA
    • Stages: initiation, elongation, termination
    • tRNA delivers amino acids to the growing peptide chain

    Triglycerides

    • Type of fat circulating in blood and stored in tissues
    • Provides energy when metabolized
    • Components: three fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule
    • High triglyceride levels can lead to heart disease and pancreatitis

    Urinary System

    • Responsible for urine production, storage, and elimination
    • Kidneys filter blood, remove waste, reabsorb essential substances
    • Urine travels through ureters to the bladder for storage
    • Bladder expels urine through the urethra
    • Regulates blood pressure, electrolyte balance

    Water-Soluble Hormones

    • Hormones dissolving easily in water, travel in the bloodstream
    • Bind to surface receptors, triggering second messenger systems
    • Rapid onset, short duration effects
    • Examples: insulin, glucagon, epinephrine
    • Can't pass through cell membranes, require surface receptors

    Key Terms

    • (Many key terms are too broad for study notes. Multiple entries listed for some terms in the original input.)*

    • Action potential (brief electrical signal along neuron/muscle membranes, transmitting information)

    • Active site (of an enzyme) (region where a substrate binds and reacts)

    • Adenine (A) (nucleotide base pairing with T or U in DNA or RNA)

    • ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone) (regulates water reabsorption by kidneys)

    • Alpha sheets (secondary protein structure—twisted ribbon shape)

    • ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) (energy storage and transfer molecule in cells)

    • Beta sheets (secondary protein structure—flat, pleated sheet)

    • C3 plants (photosynthesis using Calvin cycle, less efficient in hotter conditions)

    • C4 plants (photosynthetic adaptation to minimize water loss in hot conditions)

    • CAM plants (photosynthetic adaptation to conserve water in arid conditions)

    • Catalyst (substance speeding up a chemical reaction without being consumed)

    • Central dogma (flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein)

    • Central nervous system (CNS) (brain and spinal cord)

    • Covalent bond (atoms share electrons to form stable molecules)

    • Cytosine (C) (nucleotide base pairing with G)

    • Dehydration synthesis (chemical reaction; removing water to form a larger molecule)

    • DNA (double helix; genetic material)

    • Electron transport chain (in mitochondria; creates ATP using oxygen)

    • Endocrine glands/hormones (glands producing hormones; regulate bodily functions)

    ...and many others

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    Test your knowledge on various biological concepts, including hormones, energy carriers, cellular processes, and more. This quiz covers topics such as adrenal glands, exocytosis, and the structure of proteins. Challenge yourself to see how well you understand these fundamental biological principles.

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