Biology Chapter: Immune and Nervous Systems

Substances that trigger an immune response and can be targeted for destruction.

Lymphocytes that produce antibodies to fight off bacteria and other foreign invaders.

Lymphocytes that directly kill infected cells or cancer cells.

Immune response involving antibodies.

Immune response that involves T cells attacking infected body cells directly.

Cells that develop from B cells and produce large quantities of antibodies.

Immune cells that remember previous encounters with specific antigens, leading to a faster and stronger response upon re-exposure.

The body's defense system against pathogens and disease. Includes cells, tissues and organs involved in immunity

The process of a cell engulfing and destroying foreign particles or cellular debris.

A cell that performs phagocytosis, ingesting and destroying pathogens or cellular debris

Immune cells that target and destroy abnormal cells such as virus-infected or cancerous cells.

The body's response to tissue damage, characterized by redness, swelling, heat, and pain.

A systemic response where the body's temperature rises above normal to help fight infection.

Proteins produced by B cells that bind specifically to antigens, inactivating them or marking them for destruction.

An immune response that targets specific antigens. This means it tailors its response to one particular threat.

Glial cells support, nourish, and protect neurons, maintain homeostasis, fight pathogens, remove dead cells, manage K+ balance, create and circulate CSF, produce myelin, and aid in peripheral nerve regeneration.

The electrical potential difference across a neuron's membrane when it's not sending signals (-70mV).

A rapid, reversible change in a neuron's membrane potential, the signal neurons use to communicate.

Action potentials begin at the axon hillock, where the decision is made for the signal to be sent.

Drugs that block the opening of sodium channels to prevent action potential generation and conduction, thus numbing a region.

A structure in the neuron that allows communication with another cell via neurotransmitters.

A chemical messenger released by a neuron at a synapse to affect another cell.

A significant difference in intracellular and extracellular K+ concentrations, high permeability, and 'leaky' K+ channels are crucial in developing resting membrane potential.

The corpus callosum is a bundle of nerve fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain, enabling communication and coordination between them.

The spinal cord transmits sensory information from the body to the brain, carries motor commands from the brain to muscles and glands, and acts as a reflex center.

The cervical enlargement houses the cell bodies of neurons that control the upper limbs, allowing for fine motor control and movement.

The lumbar enlargement contains the cell bodies of neurons that control the lower limbs, enabling movement and sensation in the legs and feet.

Grey matter, located inside the spinal cord, contains cell bodies of neurons and is involved in processing information. White matter, surrounding the grey matter, consists primarily of axons and is responsible for transmitting information.

Monocytes circulate in the blood and transform into macrophages in tissues. They are highly mobile, phagocytic, and activate lymphocytes.

There are two main types of lymphocytes:

• T-cells: Directly attack infected cells or cancer cells (cellular immune response)
• B-cells: Produce antibodies (humoral immune response)

Part of the innate immune system, NK cells detect and destroy cells lacking MHC class I molecules. These cells are often infected or cancerous.

Platelets are cell fragments involved in blood clotting (haemostasis). They release various substances like serotonin, calcium, and growth factors.

Mast cells reside in tissues and play a significant role in inflammation. They release inflammatory mediators in response to stimuli like allergens or pathogens.

Blood groups are determined by specific glycoproteins (antigens) on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs). These antigens are unique to each individual.

The ABO blood group system is based on the presence or absence of two antigens: A and B. Individuals have A, B, AB, or O blood types based on these antigens.

Haemostasis is the process of stopping bleeding. The first two steps are:

1. Vascular spasms: Blood vessels constrict, reducing blood flow
2. Platelet plug formation: Platelets aggregate at the site of injury to form a plug.

The trachea is kept open by C-shaped cartilage rings, which are incomplete to allow for the trachea to expand. The gap in the rings is filled by the trachealis muscle, which can contract to help narrow the trachea.

Special cells in the alveoli walls that engulf and destroy harmful particles like dust and pathogens.

It's the force exerted on a container by its contents. In the context of breathing, pressure can change within the lungs and the surrounding cavities.

Movement from an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure. It's like a downhill flow until the pressure is equal.

The process of breathing in, driven by a negative pressure gradient. The diaphragm contracts and flattens, and the rib cage expands, increasing the volume of the lungs and lowering air pressure.

Breathing out, driven by a positive pressure gradient. The diaphragm relaxes and moves upward, the rib cage contracts, decreasing the volume of the lungs and raising air pressure.

Measures how many breaths you take per minute, normally 12-20 in a healthy adult.

Calculates the total volume of air moved in and out of your lungs every minute.