Biology: Cellular Structure and Processes

Basic structural and functional units of living organisms
Consist of:
- Plasma membrane: outermost layer, separates cell from environment
- Cytoplasm: gel-like substance inside plasma membrane
- Nucleus: contains genetic material (DNA)
Cell types:
- Prokaryotic cells: no nucleus, small, simple structure (e.g. bacteria)
- Eukaryotic cells: nucleus, larger, more complex structure (e.g. plants, animals)

Metabolism: conversion of energy and nutrients within cells
Photosynthesis: process by which plants convert light energy into glucose
Cellular respiration: process by which cells generate energy from glucose
Mitosis: process of cell division, resulting in two identical daughter cells
Meiosis: process of cell division, resulting in four non-identical daughter cells (gametes)

Theory of evolution: process by which species change over time through natural selection
Natural selection: process by which individuals with favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce
Speciation: process by which new species emerge
Fossil record: evidence of evolution through fossilized remains of ancient organisms
Comparative anatomy: study of similarities and differences in body structure among species

Ecosystem: community of living and non-living components interacting in an environment
Biotic factors: living components (e.g. plants, animals, microorganisms)
Abiotic factors: non-living components (e.g. water, sunlight, temperature)
Energy flow: transfer of energy from one organism to another through food chains and webs
Nutrient cycling: recycling of nutrients through ecosystems

Kingdoms: highest level of classification, includes:
- Monera (bacteria)
- Protista (eukaryotic microorganisms)
- Fungi
- Plantae (plants)
- Animalia (animals)
Phyla: level of classification below kingdoms, groups organisms based on body structure
Classes: level of classification below phyla, groups organisms based on shared characteristics

Fundamental units of all living organisms, responsible for various functions.
Composed of three main parts:
- Plasma Membrane: Acts as a barrier, controlling the movement of substances in and out of the cell.
- Cytoplasm: A viscous fluid that contains organelles and is the site for many cellular processes.
- Nucleus: Houses DNA, which contains instructions for cellular functions and heredity.
Types of cells:
- Prokaryotic Cells: Lacks a defined nucleus; typically smaller and simpler (e.g., bacteria).
- Eukaryotic Cells: Contains a nucleus; larger and more complex (e.g., plant and animal cells).

Metabolism: Encompasses all chemical reactions that convert energy and nutrients to sustain cellular activities.
Photosynthesis: A process utilized by plants to convert light energy into chemical energy (glucose).
Cellular Respiration: The mechanism by which cells extract energy from glucose, producing ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
Mitosis: A method of somatic cell division that results in two genetically identical daughter cells.
Meiosis: A specialized form of cell division resulting in four non-identical gametes, essential for sexual reproduction.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid): The hereditary material that encodes genetic information essential for life.
Genes: Specific sequences of DNA that determine particular traits or characteristics in an organism.
Traits: Observable characteristics influenced by genetic makeup, passed down through generations.
Inheritance: The mechanism by which genetic traits are transmitted from parents to offspring during reproduction.
Mutations: Random changes in the DNA sequence that can lead to variations in traits, some beneficial, others detrimental.

Theory of Evolution: Describes how species evolve over time through processes like natural selection and genetic mutation.
Natural Selection: A mechanism by which individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, influencing species over generations.
Speciation: The evolutionary process by which new biological species arise from existing species.
Fossil Record: Provides historical evidence of the evolution of species through the remnants of ancient life forms.
Comparative Anatomy: Investigates the anatomical similarities and differences among species, offering insights into evolutionary relationships.

Ecosystem: A system formed by the interaction of living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components within an environment.
Biotic Factors: Include all living organisms such as plants, animals, and microorganisms that interact within an ecosystem.
Abiotic Factors: Comprise non-living elements like water, sunlight, air, and minerals that influence the ecosystem's environment.
Energy Flow: Involves the transfer of energy through food chains and webs, beginning with primary producers and moving through various consumers.
Nutrient Cycling: The process of recycling nutrients, essential for maintaining ecosystem health and balance.

Kingdoms: The highest classification level, encompassing major groups of life:
- Monera: Contains bacteria and archaea, unicellular organisms.
- Protista: Composed of diverse eukaryotic microorganisms.
- Fungi: Includes yeasts, molds, and mushrooms.
- Plantae: All plants, characterized by photosynthetic capabilities.
- Animalia: Multicellular organisms that typically consume organic material for energy.
Phyla: A classification level below kingdoms that groups organisms based on significant structural features.
Classes: A further classification below phyla, organizing organisms based on shared traits and evolutionary history.