Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is a key property common to all cells?
What is a key property common to all cells?
- Existence of a nucleus
- Ability to move independently
- Presence of a cell membrane (correct)
- Ability to produce energy through photosynthesis
How does the surface-to-volume ratio affect cell size?
How does the surface-to-volume ratio affect cell size?
- Larger cells can more efficiently perform metabolic functions
- Smaller cells have a lower surface-to-volume ratio
- Larger cells have a higher surface-to-volume ratio
- Increased surface area can facilitate nutrient absorption (correct)
Which of the following correctly distinguishes prokaryotic from eukaryotic cells?
Which of the following correctly distinguishes prokaryotic from eukaryotic cells?
- Prokaryotic cells have a defined nucleus; eukaryotic cells do not.
- Prokaryotic cells possess membrane-bound organelles; eukaryotic do not.
- Eukaryotic cells lack ribosomes; prokaryotic cells contain them.
- Eukaryotic cells are typically larger than prokaryotic cells. (correct)
Which evidence supports the endosymbiotic theory of eukaryotic organelles?
Which evidence supports the endosymbiotic theory of eukaryotic organelles?
What features must have been present in the earliest cells?
What features must have been present in the earliest cells?
What is the primary function of mitochondria in eukaryotic cells?
What is the primary function of mitochondria in eukaryotic cells?
Which statement about the cytoskeleton is true?
Which statement about the cytoskeleton is true?
How are mitochondria inherited?
How are mitochondria inherited?
What are intermediate filaments primarily known for?
What are intermediate filaments primarily known for?
Which type of structure is responsible for cellular propulsion, similar to that of a spaceship?
Which type of structure is responsible for cellular propulsion, similar to that of a spaceship?
What role do lysosomes play in cellular maintenance?
What role do lysosomes play in cellular maintenance?
What is a primary by-product of the activities of peroxisomes?
What is a primary by-product of the activities of peroxisomes?
Which structure is responsible for ATP production in the cell?
Which structure is responsible for ATP production in the cell?
What feature distinguishes peroxisomes from lysosomes?
What feature distinguishes peroxisomes from lysosomes?
What is the significance of the low pH inside lysosomes?
What is the significance of the low pH inside lysosomes?
What is the primary function of cilia and flagella in eukaryotic cells?
What is the primary function of cilia and flagella in eukaryotic cells?
Which structure is primarily associated with the movement of chromosomes during cell division?
Which structure is primarily associated with the movement of chromosomes during cell division?
What is the arrangement of microtubules in cilia and flagella referred to as?
What is the arrangement of microtubules in cilia and flagella referred to as?
What type of organelle contains chlorophyll and is involved in photosynthesis?
What type of organelle contains chlorophyll and is involved in photosynthesis?
Which of the following is NOT a function of the vacuole in plant cells?
Which of the following is NOT a function of the vacuole in plant cells?
What protein is responsible for the movement of microtubules in cilia and flagella?
What protein is responsible for the movement of microtubules in cilia and flagella?
How do flagella move in eukaryotic cells?
How do flagella move in eukaryotic cells?
Which of the following structures is unique to plant cells?
Which of the following structures is unique to plant cells?
What is the primary role of the Golgi Complex in a cell?
What is the primary role of the Golgi Complex in a cell?
Which structure serves as the 'recycling truck' of the cell?
Which structure serves as the 'recycling truck' of the cell?
What distinguishes eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic cells?
What distinguishes eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic cells?
What are the two types of transport associated with vesicles?
What are the two types of transport associated with vesicles?
What is the structure of the Golgi Complex?
What is the structure of the Golgi Complex?
What is the primary product of nitrogen fixation that makes nitrogen bioavailable to plants?
What is the primary product of nitrogen fixation that makes nitrogen bioavailable to plants?
Where is the cis face of the Golgi Complex located?
Where is the cis face of the Golgi Complex located?
Which characteristic is NOT associated with mitochondria according to the endosymbiosis theory?
Which characteristic is NOT associated with mitochondria according to the endosymbiosis theory?
Glycoproteins are formed by the addition of which molecule?
Glycoproteins are formed by the addition of which molecule?
What type of vesicles would be used for exporting materials out of the cell?
What type of vesicles would be used for exporting materials out of the cell?
How does RNA serve a crucial role in early life forms?
How does RNA serve a crucial role in early life forms?
What role do vesicles play in intracellular transport?
What role do vesicles play in intracellular transport?
What is NOT a characteristic of prokaryotic cells?
What is NOT a characteristic of prokaryotic cells?
Which statement accurately describes ribozymes?
Which statement accurately describes ribozymes?
How many Golgi Complexes might a protist typically have?
How many Golgi Complexes might a protist typically have?
What key role do cell membranes play in cellular environments?
What key role do cell membranes play in cellular environments?
What evidence supports the endosymbiosis theory for the origin of mitochondria?
What evidence supports the endosymbiosis theory for the origin of mitochondria?
Which of the following processes includes the conversion of nitrogen gas (N2) into a usable form for living organisms?
Which of the following processes includes the conversion of nitrogen gas (N2) into a usable form for living organisms?
Why is DNA loosely compacted during interphase?
Why is DNA loosely compacted during interphase?
What role do histones play in the structure of nucleosomes?
What role do histones play in the structure of nucleosomes?
What is the advantage of chromatin being maximally compacted during cell division?
What is the advantage of chromatin being maximally compacted during cell division?
What does the term TADs refer to in the context of chromatin organization?
What does the term TADs refer to in the context of chromatin organization?
How are nucleosomes structured?
How are nucleosomes structured?
During which phase of the cell cycle are chromosomes most condensed?
During which phase of the cell cycle are chromosomes most condensed?
What is the structural unit of DNA packaging called?
What is the structural unit of DNA packaging called?
What occurs to homologous chromosomes prior to DNA replication?
What occurs to homologous chromosomes prior to DNA replication?
What is the purpose of cohesin proteins during DNA replication?
What is the purpose of cohesin proteins during DNA replication?
During which phase does the cell synthesize a replica of its genome?
During which phase does the cell synthesize a replica of its genome?
What is primarily occurring during the G1 phase of interphase?
What is primarily occurring during the G1 phase of interphase?
What is the outcome at the end of the somatic cell division process?
What is the outcome at the end of the somatic cell division process?
What distinguishes the mitotic phase from interphase?
What distinguishes the mitotic phase from interphase?
In what state is DNA during interphase?
In what state is DNA during interphase?
Which statement is true regarding the centromere?
Which statement is true regarding the centromere?
Which phase is primarily characterized as the longest stage of the cell cycle?
Which phase is primarily characterized as the longest stage of the cell cycle?
What is the main method of bacterial cell division?
What is the main method of bacterial cell division?
What happens during the replication of a bacterial chromosome?
What happens during the replication of a bacterial chromosome?
Which of the following correctly describes the outcome of binary fission in bacteria?
Which of the following correctly describes the outcome of binary fission in bacteria?
How is bacterial DNA compacted within the cell?
How is bacterial DNA compacted within the cell?
What structure forms to separate the two new cells during bacterial division?
What structure forms to separate the two new cells during bacterial division?
What is the location of bacterial DNA within a cell known as?
What is the location of bacterial DNA within a cell known as?
Which phase of the eukaryotic cell cycle is primarily responsible for DNA replication?
Which phase of the eukaryotic cell cycle is primarily responsible for DNA replication?
In contrast to eukaryotic cell division, what is a key characteristic of bacterial cell division?
In contrast to eukaryotic cell division, what is a key characteristic of bacterial cell division?
What is the term for a cell with two sets of homologous chromosomes?
What is the term for a cell with two sets of homologous chromosomes?
Which type of cell division do somatic cells undergo?
Which type of cell division do somatic cells undergo?
Which of the following correctly defines germ-line cells?
Which of the following correctly defines germ-line cells?
How many chromosomes do humans have in diploid somatic cells?
How many chromosomes do humans have in diploid somatic cells?
What does the term 'ploidy' refer to in genetics?
What does the term 'ploidy' refer to in genetics?
Which of the following statements is true about haploid cells?
Which of the following statements is true about haploid cells?
In what way do offspring inherit genetic material from their parents?
In what way do offspring inherit genetic material from their parents?
Which feature distinguishes somatic cells from germ-line cells?
Which feature distinguishes somatic cells from germ-line cells?
What initiates the anaphase during somatic cell division?
What initiates the anaphase during somatic cell division?
Which of the following occurs during telophase?
Which of the following occurs during telophase?
Which phase of mitosis is characterized by the alignment of chromosomes on the metaphase plate?
Which phase of mitosis is characterized by the alignment of chromosomes on the metaphase plate?
What is the role of the cleavage furrow during cytokinesis in animal cells?
What is the role of the cleavage furrow during cytokinesis in animal cells?
What occurs during the G1 phase of the cell cycle?
What occurs during the G1 phase of the cell cycle?
How do plant cells differ from animal cells during cytokinesis?
How do plant cells differ from animal cells during cytokinesis?
What happens to the chromosomes at the end of anaphase?
What happens to the chromosomes at the end of anaphase?
Which of the following describes a characteristic of prophase in mitosis?
Which of the following describes a characteristic of prophase in mitosis?
Which structure is responsible for the movement of chromosomes during cell division?
Which structure is responsible for the movement of chromosomes during cell division?
What happens during cytokinesis?
What happens during cytokinesis?
What feature characterizes the end of metaphase?
What feature characterizes the end of metaphase?
Which phase of the cell cycle typically sees the most variation in length between different cell types?
Which phase of the cell cycle typically sees the most variation in length between different cell types?
During which phase do microtubules attach to the centromeres of chromosomes?
During which phase do microtubules attach to the centromeres of chromosomes?
Which statement is true about the frequency of cell division?
Which statement is true about the frequency of cell division?
What is indicated when a cell is in the G0 phase?
What is indicated when a cell is in the G0 phase?
Which role do centrioles play during mitosis?
Which role do centrioles play during mitosis?
What is the first step in Mendel's experimental method?
What is the first step in Mendel's experimental method?
Which of the following traits did Mendel study in his experiments?
Which of the following traits did Mendel study in his experiments?
What is the result of crossing a true-breeding purple flower with a true-breeding white flower?
What is the result of crossing a true-breeding purple flower with a true-breeding white flower?
What process did Mendel use to prevent self-fertilization in his pea plants?
What process did Mendel use to prevent self-fertilization in his pea plants?
How many different traits did Mendel produce true-breeding strains for?
How many different traits did Mendel produce true-breeding strains for?
Which of these is NOT a method included in Mendel's experimental method?
Which of these is NOT a method included in Mendel's experimental method?
What is the purpose of counting the number of offspring in Mendel's experiments?
What is the purpose of counting the number of offspring in Mendel's experiments?
What do true-breeding strains guarantee in Mendel's experiments?
What do true-breeding strains guarantee in Mendel's experiments?
What is a key characteristic of a test cross?
What is a key characteristic of a test cross?
In a monohybrid cross, what is being studied?
In a monohybrid cross, what is being studied?
During a dihybrid cross, what is the key purpose?
During a dihybrid cross, what is the key purpose?
What is the expected phenotype of the F1 generation in a dihybrid cross?
What is the expected phenotype of the F1 generation in a dihybrid cross?
Which genotype represents a heterozygous individual?
Which genotype represents a heterozygous individual?
How many gametes can a dihybrid plant with the genotype RrYy produce?
How many gametes can a dihybrid plant with the genotype RrYy produce?
What is the term used to describe true breeding parental generations in genetic crosses?
What is the term used to describe true breeding parental generations in genetic crosses?
In a Punnett square, what do the letters represent?
In a Punnett square, what do the letters represent?
What is the genotype of the F1 generation offspring when crossing a true-breeding purple parent with a true-breeding white parent?
What is the genotype of the F1 generation offspring when crossing a true-breeding purple parent with a true-breeding white parent?
In a Punnett square, which type of allele expresses itself over the other?
In a Punnett square, which type of allele expresses itself over the other?
What phenotypes are possible in the F2 generation resulting from a cross of F1 heterozygous purple offspring?
What phenotypes are possible in the F2 generation resulting from a cross of F1 heterozygous purple offspring?
What percentage of F2 offspring from a Pp x Pp cross are expected to be homozygous recessive (pp)?
What percentage of F2 offspring from a Pp x Pp cross are expected to be homozygous recessive (pp)?
What type of gametes do true-breeding parents produce?
What type of gametes do true-breeding parents produce?
Which phenotype corresponds with the homozygous dominant genotype?
Which phenotype corresponds with the homozygous dominant genotype?
Why are all F1 offspring purple when crossing a purple and a white parent?
Why are all F1 offspring purple when crossing a purple and a white parent?
What is the expected ratio of phenotypes in the F2 generation from a dihybrid cross?
What is the expected ratio of phenotypes in the F2 generation from a dihybrid cross?
What ratio of dominant to recessive traits is observed in the F2 generation from self-fertilized hybrid offspring?
What ratio of dominant to recessive traits is observed in the F2 generation from self-fertilized hybrid offspring?
What ratio represents the typical genetic makeup of the F3 generation?
What ratio represents the typical genetic makeup of the F3 generation?
What is the definition of a dominant allele?
What is the definition of a dominant allele?
What does it mean when an organism is described as homozygous?
What does it mean when an organism is described as homozygous?
Which statement about alleles is true?
Which statement about alleles is true?
What does the term phenotype refer to?
What does the term phenotype refer to?
In Mendel's experiments, how were alternative traits expressed in the progeny of a particular cross?
In Mendel's experiments, how were alternative traits expressed in the progeny of a particular cross?
Which of the following statements accurately summarizes Mendel's five-element model of inheritance?
Which of the following statements accurately summarizes Mendel's five-element model of inheritance?
What color flowers are produced in the first filial generation (F1) when a true-breeding purple flower is crossed with a true-breeding white flower?
What color flowers are produced in the first filial generation (F1) when a true-breeding purple flower is crossed with a true-breeding white flower?
What does the term 'dominant trait' refer to in the context of genetics?
What does the term 'dominant trait' refer to in the context of genetics?
What phenotypic ratio is expected in the F2 generation after self-fertilizing hybrid F1 plants?
What phenotypic ratio is expected in the F2 generation after self-fertilizing hybrid F1 plants?
What is observed when conducting a reciprocal cross between two true-breeding plants?
What is observed when conducting a reciprocal cross between two true-breeding plants?
Which statement accurately differentiates hybrid offspring from their true-breeding parents?
Which statement accurately differentiates hybrid offspring from their true-breeding parents?
How is the recessive trait treated in the F1 generation when true-breeding strains are crossed?
How is the recessive trait treated in the F1 generation when true-breeding strains are crossed?
What is the role of self-fertilization in the F1 generation for producing the F2 generation?
What is the role of self-fertilization in the F1 generation for producing the F2 generation?
What phenomenon is completely absent in the offspring of the initial cross between two true-breeding plants?
What phenomenon is completely absent in the offspring of the initial cross between two true-breeding plants?
What is the primary purpose of a test cross in genetics?
What is the primary purpose of a test cross in genetics?
What does a purple-flowered pea plant's phenotype indicate?
What does a purple-flowered pea plant's phenotype indicate?
In a test cross, what genotype is the unknown genotype crossed with?
In a test cross, what genotype is the unknown genotype crossed with?
Which Punnett square outcome would indicate that a purple-flowered plant is likely homozygous?
Which Punnett square outcome would indicate that a purple-flowered plant is likely homozygous?
What genetic feature allows a plant with the purple phenotype to potentially be heterozygous?
What genetic feature allows a plant with the purple phenotype to potentially be heterozygous?
What conclusion can be made if a test cross results in offspring with a mix of purple and white flowers?
What conclusion can be made if a test cross results in offspring with a mix of purple and white flowers?
In the context of Mendelian genetics, how is the term 'homozygous' best defined?
In the context of Mendelian genetics, how is the term 'homozygous' best defined?
What type of genetic cross demonstrates the principle of segregation in inheritance?
What type of genetic cross demonstrates the principle of segregation in inheritance?
Flashcards
Cell Theory
Cell Theory
A fundamental principle in biology stating that all living organisms are composed of cells and that all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Surface-to-Volume Ratio
Surface-to-Volume Ratio
The ratio of a cell's outer surface area to its volume. It affects the rate of diffusion and the efficiency of nutrient uptake and waste removal.
Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic Cells
Simple cells lacking a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles, usually found in bacteria and archaea.
Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic Cells
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Endosymbiotic Theory
Endosymbiotic Theory
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Lysosomes
Lysosomes
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Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes
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What is the function of catalase in peroxisomes?
What is the function of catalase in peroxisomes?
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Mitochondria
Mitochondria
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What is the function of the cristae in mitochondria?
What is the function of the cristae in mitochondria?
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Endomembrane System
Endomembrane System
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Golgi Complex
Golgi Complex
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Cis Face
Cis Face
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Trans Face
Trans Face
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Vesicle
Vesicle
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Endocytosis
Endocytosis
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Exocytosis
Exocytosis
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Glycoprotein vs Glycolipid
Glycoprotein vs Glycolipid
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Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the Cell
Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the Cell
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Mitochondrial DNA
Mitochondrial DNA
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What is the cytoskeleton's function?
What is the cytoskeleton's function?
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Actin Filaments: Building Blocks for Movement
Actin Filaments: Building Blocks for Movement
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Intermediate Filaments: Durable and Diverse
Intermediate Filaments: Durable and Diverse
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Nitrogen Fixation
Nitrogen Fixation
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RNA World Hypothesis
RNA World Hypothesis
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Plasma Membrane
Plasma Membrane
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Mitochondria: Origin
Mitochondria: Origin
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Chloroplast: Origin
Chloroplast: Origin
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Prokaryote Characteristics
Prokaryote Characteristics
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Ribozyme
Ribozyme
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Cilia
Cilia
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Flagellum
Flagellum
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What makes cilia and flagella move?
What makes cilia and flagella move?
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Centriole
Centriole
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What is the role of the centrosome?
What is the role of the centrosome?
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Central Vacuole
Central Vacuole
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Chloroplast
Chloroplast
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What makes chloroplasts special?
What makes chloroplasts special?
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Binary Fission
Binary Fission
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Origin of Replication
Origin of Replication
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Septum
Septum
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Loop Domain
Loop Domain
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Supercoiling
Supercoiling
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Nucleoid Region
Nucleoid Region
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Mitosis vs. Binary Fission
Mitosis vs. Binary Fission
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Clonal Reproduction
Clonal Reproduction
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Homologous Chromosomes
Homologous Chromosomes
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Ploidy
Ploidy
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Haploid (n)
Haploid (n)
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Diploid (2n)
Diploid (2n)
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Somatic Cell
Somatic Cell
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Germ-line Cell
Germ-line Cell
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Mitosis
Mitosis
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Meiosis
Meiosis
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Somatic Cell Division
Somatic Cell Division
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Sister Chromatids
Sister Chromatids
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Centromere
Centromere
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Interphase
Interphase
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G1 Phase
G1 Phase
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S Phase
S Phase
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G2 Phase
G2 Phase
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Chromatin
Chromatin
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Nucleosome
Nucleosome
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Histones
Histones
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TADs (Topologically Associated Domains)
TADs (Topologically Associated Domains)
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Why does DNA condense during cell division?
Why does DNA condense during cell division?
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Radial Looping
Radial Looping
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Condensin Proteins
Condensin Proteins
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What is interphase?
What is interphase?
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Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis
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Chromosomes condense
Chromosomes condense
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What is the purpose of Prophase?
What is the purpose of Prophase?
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What happens during Prometaphase?
What happens during Prometaphase?
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What's the Metaphase plate?
What's the Metaphase plate?
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Explain Anaphase.
Explain Anaphase.
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What is Telophase?
What is Telophase?
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What is Cytokinesis?
What is Cytokinesis?
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Difference between plant and animal cytokinesis?
Difference between plant and animal cytokinesis?
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What is the role of actin filaments in animal cytokinesis?
What is the role of actin filaments in animal cytokinesis?
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True-Breeding Strain
True-Breeding Strain
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F1 Generation
F1 Generation
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Dominant Trait
Dominant Trait
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Recessive Trait
Recessive Trait
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F2 Generation
F2 Generation
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Phenotypic Ratio
Phenotypic Ratio
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3:1 Phenotypic Ratio
3:1 Phenotypic Ratio
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Reciprocal Cross
Reciprocal Cross
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Mendel's experimental method
Mendel's experimental method
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Cross-fertilization
Cross-fertilization
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Why remove anthers?
Why remove anthers?
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Parental generation (P)
Parental generation (P)
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First filial generation (F1)
First filial generation (F1)
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Second filial generation (F2)
Second filial generation (F2)
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What is the importance of Mendel's experiments?
What is the importance of Mendel's experiments?
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Mendel's 3:1 Ratio
Mendel's 3:1 Ratio
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No Blending
No Blending
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Allele
Allele
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Homozygous vs. Heterozygous
Homozygous vs. Heterozygous
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Dominant vs. Recessive
Dominant vs. Recessive
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Phenotype
Phenotype
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Mendel's Five-Element Model
Mendel's Five-Element Model
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Punnett Square
Punnett Square
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Heterozygous
Heterozygous
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Homozygous
Homozygous
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Test Cross
Test Cross
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Monohybrid Cross
Monohybrid Cross
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Dihybrid Cross
Dihybrid Cross
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True Breeding
True Breeding
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Dominant Phenotype
Dominant Phenotype
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Dominant Allele
Dominant Allele
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Recessive Allele
Recessive Allele
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Study Notes
General Biology 1 - Fall 2024
- Course focusing on the study of cells, as part 2.
- Textbook used: Raven, Biology, 13th edition.
- Key topics covered by these notes include Cell Structure, Chemical Basis of Life, Organelles, Endomembrane System, the Golgi Complex, Vesicles, Lysosomes and Peroxisomes, Mitochondria, Cytoskeleton, Cilia and Flagella, Centrosomes, Plant cells and Vacuoles, Chloroplasts, how life began on Earth, prokaryotes and eukaryotes (differences).
Chemical Basis of Life
- Cell Theory Summary: Summarize the Cell Theory and list the key properties common to all cells.
- Surface Area to Volume Ratio: Discuss the impact of surface-to-volume ratios on cell size, and biological processes in general.
- Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells: Distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
- Cellular Structures: Identify and/or explain the function of various cellular structures (organelles) found in typical eukaryotic cells.
- Cell Comparison: Compare the structural aspects of cells found in bacteria, protists, plants, animals, and fungi.
- Origins of Life: Briefly discuss the possible origins of life, and the properties of life.
- Early Cells: Describe features that must have been present in the earliest cells.
- Endosymbiotic Theory: Describe the endosymbiotic theory regarding eukaryotic organelles, including evidence supporting the theory.
Organelles
- The cell is like a medieval city.
- Organelles are like all the buildings of a city.
- The endomembrane system is a series of membranes within the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell.
Endomembrane System
- The endomembrane system is a series of membranes throughout the cytoplasm (surrounds the organelles).
- It divides the cell into compartments where different cellular functions occur.
- The presence of endomembrane is a fundamental distinction between eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
- Components include control center (nucleus), assembly line (endoplasmic reticulum), workbenches (ribosomes), distribution center (Golgi complex), and cleaning crew (lysosomes).
Golgi Complex
- Function: Collection, packaging, and distribution of proteins and lipids; modification of proteins and lipids.
- Number: Protists: 1 to a few, Animals: >20, Plants: >100.
- Structure: Flattened membranes with bulging edges. Two key faces: cis (receiving) and trans (exit) faces.
Vesicles
- Structure: Small membrane sacs made of a phospholipid bilayer.
- Function: Transporting materials within the cell. Transport material "in and out" of the cell.
- Types of Transport: Endocytosis (import into cell) and exocytosis (export from cell).
Cell structure: Lysosomes and Peroxisomes
- Lysosomes: Small round vesicles that arise from the Golgi apparatus, functioning as the cell's recycling centers. Contain enzymes that break down waste, old structures, and organelles. Key to having a low internal pH to activate digestive enzymes.
- Peroxisomes: Similar to lysosomes but smaller; involved in oxidizing fatty acids and some amino acids generating hydrogen peroxide; contain catalase to break down hydrogen peroxide.
Cell structure: Mitochondria
- Structure: Rod-shaped organelles with two membranes (outer and inner); inner membrane folds into cristae; matrix (innermost part) contains DNA and ribosomes.
- Function: Powerhouses of the cell, generating ATP (energy currency); use oxygen and glucose for energy production, producing CO2 and water.
- Fun Facts: Mitochondria have their own DNA (mtDNA), can divide independently, and are inherited only from the mother.
Cytoskeleton
- Structure: Network of protein fibers found in all eukaryotic cells.
- Function: Supports cell shape; keeps organelles in fixed locations.
- Types: Actin filaments (also called microfilaments), Microtubules, Intermediate filaments.
Cilia and Flagella
- Function: Both are used for cell motion; cilia are more numerous and shorter; flagella more lengthy and are few, if any in a single cell.
- Examples: Sperm tails (flagella). Cilia can be found in the respiratory tract or uterine tubes to move substances.
- Structure: Nine pairs of microtubules surrounding two central microtubules, a 9 + 2 arrangement. Dynein proteins cause microtubules to move.
Centrosome
- Structure: Pair of centrioles arranged perpendicularly to each other.
- Function: Involved in cell division, specifically movement of chromosomes to cell ends during cell division.
Plant Cells
- Special Structures: Central vacuole, Cell wall (peptidoglycan), Chloroplasts (photosynthesis), No centrioles.
- Vacuole: Function in storage of sugars, salts, and pigments; waste disposal; and maintenance of water balance. The vacuolar membrane is called the tonoplast and contains channels for water.
- Chloroplast: Two membranes surrounding the organelle; contain chlorophylls for photosynthesis; have their own DNA and ribosomes; involved in photosynthesis, converting light energy to chemical energy.
How Life Began on Earth
- Metabolic Evolution Landmarks: Oxygenic photosynthesis; carbon fixation (12C isotope).
- Nitrogen Fixation: Nitrogen gas (N₂) is essential for life (DNA, amino acids), but unavailable to most organisms; nitrogen fixation is a vital process by microbes creating usable nitrogen for plants and other organisms to use.
- RNA Hypothesis: Earliest life may have used RNA as the primary informational molecule, as RNA can store genetic information, act enzymatically in ribozymes, and form ribosomal structures.
- Cell Membranes: These are crucial for separating the internal environment from the external environment, and are vital in increasing the probability of biochemical reactions.
Mitochondria Endosymbiosis Theory
- Capture of Ancestral Bacteria: Mitochondria may have originated from aerobic bacteria that were engulfed by an ancestral eukaryotic cell.
- Evidence: Double membrane structure (outer from host, inner from bacteria); contain their own DNA and ribosomes; can multiply independently.
Chloroplast Endosymbiosis Theory
- Capture of Photosynthetic Bacteria (secondary): Chloroplasts may have originated from photosynthetic bacteria that were engulfed by an ancestral eukaryotic cell.
- Evidence: Double membrane structure (inner from host, outer from bacteria); contain their own DNA and ribosomes; can multiply independently.
- Secondary Endosymbiosis: Involves an additional engulfing event between eukaryotic cells further supporting the theory
Endosymbiosis Theory
- Proposing that mitochondria and chloroplasts were originally bacteria that were engulfed by a larger cell.
Prokaryotes
- Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes Differences: In summary, Prokaryotes lack a membrane-bound nucleus and other organelles, generally are smaller in size, and contain a single circular DNA molecule. Eukaryotes have a membrane-bound nucleus, more complex organelles, and multiple linear chromosomes.
- Characteristics: Prokaryotes are the simplest organisms. They lack nuclei and other membrane-bound organelles.
- Bacterial Cell Walls: The majority of bacterial cell walls incorporate peptidoglycan, a unique polymer that aids in preserving the bacterial cell's shape and resisting the uptake or loss of water. This differs from peptidoglycan which is present in plants and fungi.
- Archaeal Cell Walls: Differing from bacteria, archaea lack peptidoglycan and their cell wall structures vary greatly. The membrane lipids are made from a different chemical structure.
- Prokaryotic Flagella: Flagella help in cell motion. It's a rotary motor across the plasma membrane using energy from proton gradients.
Difference Between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
- Eukaryotes possess: membrane-bound nucleus, complex endomembrane system and compartmentalization, and cytoskeleton.
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Description
Test your knowledge on key properties common to all cells, the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and the roles of various organelles such as mitochondria and lysosomes. This quiz also covers important theories like the endosymbiotic theory and cellular maintenance mechanisms.
