Biology and Chemistry Fundamentals

Cell Structure: Cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes
DNA: Double helix structure, genetic code, replication, transcription, translation
Evolution: Charles Darwin, natural selection, species adaptation, fossil record
Human Body Systems: Nervous, circulatory, respiratory, digestive, immune systems

Atomic Structure: Protons, neutrons, electrons, atomic number, periodic table
Chemical Bonding: Ionic, covalent, metallic bonds, molecular orbitals
Chemical Reactions: Types of reactions (synthesis, decomposition, replacement), stoichiometry
Acids and Bases: pH scale, strong/weak acids, strong/weak bases, acid-base reactions

Motion: Kinematics (position, velocity, acceleration), dynamics (force, Newton's laws)
Energy: Kinetic, potential, thermal, electrical, conservation of energy
Waves and Optics: Types of waves (mechanical, electromagnetic), reflection, refraction, diffraction
Electricity and Magnetism: Electric charges, currents, resistance, Ohm's law, magnetic fields

Geology: Plate tectonics, rock cycles, earthquakes, volcanoes, geological time scale
Weather and Climate: Atmosphere, temperature, humidity, precipitation, climate zones
Astronomy: Solar system, stars, galaxies, universe expansion, black holes

Cell Structure:
- Cell membrane: semipermeable, regulates what enters/leaves cell
- Cytoplasm: jelly-like substance, site of metabolic reactions
- Nucleus: controls cell growth/division, contains DNA
- Mitochondria: generate energy for cell through cellular respiration
- Ribosomes: site of protein synthesis
DNA:
- Double helix structure: twisted ladder, sugar-phosphate backbone, nitrogenous bases
- Genetic code: sequence of nitrogenous bases determines amino acid sequence
- Replication: process of creating identical DNA copies
- Transcription: process of creating RNA from DNA template
- Translation: process of creating protein from RNA template
Evolution:
- Charles Darwin: introduced concept of evolution through natural selection
- Natural selection: process of species adaptation to environment
- Species adaptation: change in population over time to better suit environment
- Fossil record: chronological record of Earth's history, provides evidence for evolution
Human Body Systems:
- Nervous system: controls body functions, consists of brain and nerves
- Circulatory system: transports oxygen and nutrients, consists of heart and blood vessels
- Respiratory system: exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide, consists of lungs and airways
- Digestive system: breaks down and absorbs nutrients, consists of mouth to anus
- Immune system: defends against pathogens, consists of white blood cells and lymphatic system

Atomic Structure:
- Protons: positively charged, found in nucleus
- Neutrons: no charge, found in nucleus
- Electrons: negatively charged, found in electron cloud
- Atomic number: number of protons in an atom, defines element
- Periodic table: organized chart of elements, shows relationships and properties
Chemical Bonding:
- Ionic bonds: formed between oppositely charged ions
- Covalent bonds: formed between shared electrons
- Metallic bonds: formed between positively charged metal ions and negatively charged electrons
- Molecular orbitals: distribution of electrons in molecules
Chemical Reactions:
- Synthesis reactions: two or more substances combine to form new compound
- Decomposition reactions: single compound breaks down into two or more substances
- Replacement reactions: one element replaces another in a compound
- Stoichiometry: study of quantitative relationships in chemical reactions
Acids and Bases:
- pH scale: measures acidity/basicity, ranges from 0-14
- Strong acids: completely dissociate in water, pH < 7
- Weak acids: partially dissociate in water, pH < 7
- Strong bases: completely dissociate in water, pH > 7
- Weak bases: partially dissociate in water, pH > 7
- Acid-base reactions: combination of acid and base to form salt and water

Motion:
- Kinematics: study of object motion, describes position, velocity, and acceleration
- Dynamics: study of forces and their effects on motion
- Newton's laws: three laws that describe motion and force
Energy:
- Kinetic energy: energy of motion
- Potential energy: energy of position or stored energy
- Thermal energy: energy of heat
- Electrical energy: energy of moving charges
- Conservation of energy: energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted
Waves and Optics:
- Types of waves: mechanical (require medium), electromagnetic (do not require medium)
- Reflection: change in direction of wave, occurs when wave hits surface
- Refraction: change in speed and direction of wave, occurs when wave passes through medium
- Diffraction: bending of wave around obstacle
Electricity and Magnetism:
- Electric charges: positive and negative charges, like charges repel, opposite charges attract
- Electric currents: flow of electric charge, measured in amperes
- Resistance: opposition to electric current, measured in ohms
- Ohm's law: relates voltage, current, and resistance
- Magnetic fields: created by electric currents, interact with moving charges

Geology:
- Plate tectonics: theory that Earth's surface is divided into moving plates
- Rock cycles: process of rock formation, transformation, and destruction
- Earthquakes: release of energy as plates move, causes seismic waves
- Volcanoes: landforms that occur when magma reaches surface
- Geological time scale: chronological record of Earth's history, divided into eons, eras, and periods
Weather and Climate:
- Atmosphere: layer of gases surrounding Earth, provides climate and weather
- Temperature: measure of kinetic energy, affects climate and weather
- Humidity: measure of water vapor in air, affects climate and weather
- Precipitation: water that falls to Earth's surface, affects climate and weather
- Climate zones: regions with distinct climate characteristics
Astronomy:
- Solar system: consists of Sun and eight planets, plus dwarf planets and other objects
- Stars: massive balls of hot, glowing gas, emit light and heat
- Galaxies: massive collections of stars, gas, and dust, held together by gravity
- Universe expansion: observation that universe is expanding, suggests Big Bang origin
- Black holes: regions of spacetime with extreme gravity, nothing escapes