Biol 1407 Unit 1 Study Guide: Evolution

Podcast

Play an AI-generated podcast conversation about this lesson

Questions and Answers

What is the primary mechanism by which populations evolve over time?

Mutation

Artificial selection

Genetic drift

Natural selection (correct)

What is the term for the similarity in structure and development among different species, resulting from a common ancestor?

Convergent evolution

Analogy

Homology (correct)

Parallel evolution

Which of the following is NOT a direct observation of evolution?

Birds' beak size and fruit size

Vestigial structures (correct)

Homologous structures

Antibiotic resistance

Who is credited with publishing the book 'The Origin of Species' in 1859?

Charles Darwin Signup and view all the answers

What is the process by which humans can modify species through selective breeding?

Artificial selection Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the process by which one species splits into two species?

Speciation Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of similar environments, not due to common ancestry, called?

Convergent evolution Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the scientific study of the geographic distribution of species?

Biogeography Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the movement of alleles among populations?

Gene flow Signup and view all the answers

What is the equation that can be used to test whether a population is evolving?

p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 Signup and view all the answers

What is the major limitation of the morphological species concept?

It relies on subjective criteria Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism of allopatric speciation?

Geographic isolation Signup and view all the answers

What is the process by which a new species forms within a single generation without geographic separation?

Polyploidy Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe the rapid period of evolutionary change where many new species arise and adapt to different ecological niches?

Adaptive radiation Signup and view all the answers

What is the correct sequence of the biological classification system?

Domain-Kingdom-Phylum-Class-Order-Family-Genus-Species Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between homology and analogy?

Homology is similarity due to shared ancestry, while analogy is similarity due to convergent evolution Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for a group that consists of an ancestral species and some, but not all, of the descendants?

Paraphyletic group Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of pili in prokaryotes?

To facilitate genetic recombination Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic unique to Archaea?

Extremophilic nature Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary way that prokaryotes obtain energy?

Various methods, including phototrophy, chemotrophy, and autotrophy Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic that defines protists?

They are eukaryotes with a nucleus and other membrane-enclosed organelles. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following protists is a parasite that causes malaria?

Plasmodium Signup and view all the answers

What is a unique feature of diatoms?

They have a unique glass-like wall of silicon dioxide. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of aquaporins in the cell membrane?

To regulate the passage of water Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the relationship between two species in which one organism lives inside the cell or cells of the other organism?

Endosymbiosis Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following groups of protists is most closely related to plants?

Archaeplastida Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the symbiotic relationship between plants and nitrogen-fixing bacteria?

Rhizobium Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the process by which plants obtain nitrogen from the air?

Nitrogen fixation Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the fusion of gametes during angiosperm reproduction?

Double fertilization Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of fungal cell walls?

They are made of chitin Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the symbiotic association between fungi and plant roots?

Mycorrhiza Signup and view all the answers

What is the benefit of genetically modified plants in terms of human health?

Human health benefits Signup and view all the answers

What is the feature that distinguishes plants from green algae?

Apical meristems Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of seeds that allows them to remain dormant for years?

Their stored food and nutrients Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the flower structure that contains the ovules?

Pistil Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the stamen in a flower?

To produce pollen for fertilization Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the ovary in a flower?

To produce seeds and develop into a fruit Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the root system in a plant?

To anchor the plant and absorb minerals and water Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between monocot and eudicot plants?

The number of cotyledons in the seed Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the vascular tissue in plants?

To transport materials and provide mechanical support Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of animal zygotes that lead to the formation of a blastula?

A succession of cell divisions without growth between divisions Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following phyla includes vertebrates?

Chordata Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of cnidarians that allows them to capture prey?

Nematocysts Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following body cavities is filled with hemolymph?

Hemocoel Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of protostome development?

The blastopore becomes the mouth Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the glomerulus in the nephron?

To filter water and solutes from the blood Signup and view all the answers

Which type of hormone is insulin?

Polypeptide Signup and view all the answers

What type of circulatory system do insects, other arthropods, and some molluscs have?

Open circulatory system Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following has a 4-chambered heart?

Mammals and birds Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the anterior pituitary gland?

To make and release hormones under regulation of the hypothalamus Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of platelets in the blood?

Blood clotting Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of ADH on the kidneys?

It decreases urine volume Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following excretory systems is used by insects and other terrestrial arthropods?

Malpighian tubules Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the regulation of hormone levels through negative feedback loops?

Feedback regulation Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the process by which the body regulates solute concentrations and balances water gain and loss?

Osmoregulation Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic that distinguishes Echinoderms from other animals?

Water vascular system Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of fibroblasts in connective tissue?

Secrete fiber proteins Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the automatic tendency to maintain a constant and optimal internal environment?

Homeostasis Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the small intestine in the digestive system?

Most enzymatic hydrolysis of macromolecules occurs here Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic that distinguishes vertebrates from invertebrates?

Presence of a vertebral column Signup and view all the answers

What is the percentage of production transferred from one trophic level to the next, on average?

10% Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a carbon reservoir?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary cause of extinctions on record?

Habitat loss Signup and view all the answers

What is the process where primary production increases as an ecosystem changes from nutrient-poor to nutrient-rich?

Eutrophication Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the most common type of marine waste?

Microplastics Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration over the past 170 years?

Climate change Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the rapid period of evolutionary change where many new species arise and adapt to different ecological niches?

Adaptive radiation Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a major factor driving the current increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the process where toxins are passed up the food chain and concentrated in organisms at higher trophic levels?

Biological magnification Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the area with numerous endemic and many endangered and threatened species?

Biodiversity hotspot Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Chapter 22: Descent with Modification

Scientists who influenced Darwin: Hutton, Cuvier, Lyell, Wallace, etc.
Darwin's 5-year voyage on the HMS Beagle and publication of "The Origin of Species" in 1859
Definition of evolution: the process by which species accumulate differences from their ancestors as they adapt to different environments over time
Population evolution: individuals do not evolve, but populations change over time genetically
Natural selection: the process in which individuals with certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates because of those traits
4 observations of natural selection:
- Individuals in populations vary in their inherited traits
- All species can produce more offspring than the environment can support, leading to unequal survival and reproduction
- Individuals with inherited traits that increase survival and reproduction in an environment tend to produce more offspring
- The unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce will lead to the accumulation of favorable traits in the population over generations

Artificial Selection and Evidence of Evolution

Artificial selection: humans modify species through breeding individuals with desired traits
- Examples: staple crops, domesticated animals, horses, dogs, broccoli, cabbage, rice, corn, etc.
Evidence of evolution:
- Direct observation: antibiotic resistance, birds' beak size and fruit size
- Homology: similarity from common ancestry
  - Anatomical homology (homologous structures)
  - Comparative embryology
  - Vestigial structures (e.g. goosebumps, wisdom teeth, ear muscle, tailbone of human)
  - Molecular homology (DNA)
- Fossil records: 3.5 billion years ago
- Biogeography: the scientific study of the geographic distribution of species (continental drift and the distribution of modern living organisms)

Homologous vs. Analogous Structures

Homologous structures: similar structures due to common ancestry
Analogous structures: similar structures due to convergent evolution (e.g. streamlined body shapes of dolphin and shark)

Chapter 23: The Evolution of Populations

Microevolution: changes in allele frequencies in populations over generations, evolution at its smallest scale
Three mechanisms of allele frequency change:
- Natural selection
- Genetic drift
- Gene flow
Genetic variation: the differences in genes or other DNA sequences among individuals
Sources of genetic variation:
- Mutation
- Gene duplication
- Sexual reproduction

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Conditions for equilibrium: no mutation, random mating, no natural selection, extremely large population size, no gene flow
Hardy-Weinberg equation: p + q = 1, p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

Chapter 24: The Origin of Species

Speciation: the process by which one species splits into two species
Macroevolution: broad patterns of evolutionary change above the species level (the formation of new species)
Biological species concept:
- Defined by the populations' ability to interbreed and produce fertile offspring
- Limitations: cannot be applied to fossils or asexual organisms
Morphological species concept:
- Mainly depends on anatomical physical features
- Not as accurate as the biological species concept
- Limitation: relies on subjective criteria
Ecological species concept:
- Defines species by its ecological niche

Reproductive Isolation

Prezygotic and postzygotic isolations
Prezygotic isolation: blocks fertilization
- Habitat isolation
- Temporal isolation
- Behavioral isolation
- Mechanical isolation
- Gametic isolation
Postzygotic isolation: (occurs after fertilization) prevents hybrid zygotes from developing into fertile offspring
- Reduced hybrid viability
- Reduced hybrid fertility
- Hybrid breakdown

Speciation

Allopatric speciation: populations are geographically isolated
Sympatric speciation: speciation occurs in populations that live in the same geographic area
Polyploidy: instant speciation, common in plants
Sexual selection: drives speciation through mate choice for certain traits
Habitat differentiation: the exploitation of new habitats or resources

Chapter 25: The History of Life on Earth

The formation of Earth: about 4.6 billion years ago
The oldest prokaryote fossils: 3.5 billion years ago
The oldest eukaryote fossils: 1.8 billion years ago
Radiometric dating: how fossils are dated, using radioactive isotopes
Geologic record: Cambrian explosion (many animal phyla appear suddenly in the fossils of the Cambrian period, 535-525 million years ago)
Endosymbiosis:
- Origin of eukaryotic organisms
- Both mitochondria and plastids are thought to have descended from bacteria
- Serial endosymbiosis

Mass Extinctions

Occur when large numbers of species rapidly become extinct worldwide
Five mass extinctions have been documented
Paved the way for adaptive radiation (a rapid period of evolutionary change where many new species arise and adapt to different ecological niches)

Protists

An informal term used to refer to all eukaryotes that are not plants, animals, or fungi.
Eukaryotes with a nucleus and other membrane-enclosed organelles.
Most protists are unicellular, but some are multicellular.
Nutritionally diverse, including photoautotrophs, heterotrophs, and mixotrophs.
Four groups: Excavata, SAR, Archaeplastida, and Unikonta.
Examples: Trypanosoma (causes sleeping sickness), Euglena (mixotrophs), Diatoms (unicellular algae with a glass-like wall), Brown algae (multicellular algae), Dinoflagellates (marine and freshwater phytoplankton), Plasmodium (parasite causing malaria), Paramecium (uses cilia to move and feed).

Fungi

Heterotrophs that absorb nutrients from outside their bodies.
Mostly multicellular, but some are unicellular (e.g., yeast).
Closer to animals than plants.
Cell walls made of chitin.
Sexual and asexual reproduction.
Body structure: hyphae (tubular cell walls strengthened with chitin), mycelium (interwoven mass of hyphae).
Roles: decomposers, mutualists, pathogens (e.g., ringworm, yeast infection), medicine (e.g., penicillin).
Mutualism: mycorrhiza (fungi and plant roots), lichen (symbiotic association between fungi and photosynthetic microorganisms).

Plant Diversity

Role of plants: oxygen, food sources, habitat for many land organisms.
Similarities between plants and algae: multicellular, eukaryotic, photosynthetic autotrophs, cellulose cell walls, chloroplasts.
Green algae (charophytes) are closest relatives of plants.
Differences between charophytes and plants: alternation of generations, walled spores, apical meristems, cuticle, and stomata.
Evolution of plants: from cyanobacteria to green algae to land plants.

Plant Structure

Hierarchical organization: cell, tissue, organ, organism.
Plant organs: roots (root system), stems and leaves (shoot system).
Root: anchoring, absorbing minerals and water, storing carbohydrates.
Stem: elongating, orienting shoot to maximize photosynthesis.
Leaf: photosynthetic organ, exchanging gases, dissipating heat, defending against herbivores and pathogens.
Monocots and eudicots differ in vein arrangement, vascular tissue, and cell structure.

Resource Acquisition and Transport

Xylem: transports water and minerals from roots to shoots.
Phloem: transports photosynthetic products from where they are made to where they are needed.
Stomata: pores necessary for CO2 diffusion into photosynthetic tissues.
Mycorrhizae: symbiotic fungi increase surface area for absorbing water and minerals.
Aquaporins: transport proteins facilitating water passage across cell membranes.

Soil and Plant Nutrition

Essential elements: 17 chemical elements required for plant life cycle and reproduction.
Macronutrients: 9 elements required in large amounts (e.g., carbon, oxygen, nitrogen).
Micronutrients: 8 elements required in small amounts.
Nitrogen fixation: conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into nitrate.
Plant mutualism with soil bacteria: rhizobacteria and endophyte.
Mycorrhizae: symbiotic relationship between plants and fungi.

Angiosperm Reproduction

Angiosperm anatomy: flowers (reproductive shoots), carpels, stamens, petals, sepals.
Angiosperm life cycle: gametophyte development, sperm delivery, double fertilization, seed development.
Pollination: transfer of pollen from anthers to stigma.
Double fertilization: fusion of gametes to form zygote and endosperm.
Fruits: mature ovary of a flower, protecting seeds and aiding in seed dispersal.
Asexual reproduction: producing offspring from a single parent without gamete fusion.
Sexual reproduction: generating genetic variation for evolutionary adaptation.

Animal Diversity

• Animals are characterized by their ability to move, capture prey, and be multicellular, heterotrophic, and eukaryotic. • Animals are thought to have evolved from flagellated protists, with their closest living relatives being choanoflagellates. • The Cambrian explosion marks a period of rapid animal diversification. • Animal body plans exhibit either radial symmetry or bilateral symmetry, with most animals having bilateral symmetry. • Embryo development in animals involves cleavage, a succession of cell divisions without growth between divisions, leading to the formation of a blastula. • Animal tissues are composed of few groups, with most having germ layers that give rise to tissues and organs. • Body cavities in animals include the coelom, hemocoel, and some having no cavity at all.

Invertebrates

• Invertebrates are animals without a backbone, including Porifera (sponges), Cnidaria, Lophotrochozoa, Flatworms (Platyhelminthes), Molluscs, Annelids, Ecdysozoans, Nematodes, and Arthropods.

Chordates

• Chordates are characterized by bilateral symmetry, deuterostome development, and the presence of a notochord, dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal pouches, and post-anal tail. • Chordates include both invertebrates (lancelets and tunicates) and vertebrates.

Vertebrates

• Vertebrates are characterized by the presence of a backbone, with four groups: fish, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. • Fish include hagfishes, lampreys, sharks, and ray-finned and lobe-fin fish. • Amphibians, such as frogs and salamanders, undergo metamorphosis and need both water and land for living. • Reptiles have scales, shelled and amniotic eggs, and are ectothermic. • Birds are endothermic, direct descendants of dinosaurs, and have unique characteristics. • Mammals are characterized by the presence of mammary glands, hair, and endothermy.

Animal Form and Function

• Tissues are groups of cells with similar appearance and function. • There are four types of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues. • Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body and lines organs and cavities. • Connective tissue holds tissues and organs together and provides support. • Muscle tissue is responsible for movement, with three types: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. • Nervous tissue functions in the receipt, processing, and transmission of information.

Animal Nutrition

• Diet varies among animals, with herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores. • Food processing involves ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination. • Most animals have a complete digestive system with a mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. • The digestive system is specialized for different functions, with the stomach breaking down proteins and the small intestine absorbing macromolecules.

Circulation and Respiration

• Circulatory systems are either open or closed, with insects, arthropods, and some molluscs having open systems and annelids, cephalopods, and vertebrates having closed systems. • The human cardiovascular system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. • The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood throughout the body. • Blood vessels are arteries, veins, and capillaries, with different functions. • Gas exchange occurs in capillary beds, with oxygen-rich blood returning to the heart and oxygen-poor blood flowing to the lungs.

Immune System

• Pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria, and fungi, cause disease. • The immune system has two types of immunity: innate and adaptive. • Innate immunity is non-specific, active immediately upon infection, and involves barrier defenses, cellular defense, and inflammation. • Adaptive immunity is specific, develops more slowly, and is enhanced by previous exposure to the pathogen.

Osmoregulation

• Osmoregulation controls solute concentrations and balances water gain and loss. • Animals need to remove nitrogenous waste products, with different methods used by different groups.

Hormones

• Hormones are secreted molecules that circulate through the body and stimulate specific cells. • The endocrine system uses hormones for chemical signaling, while the nervous system uses a network of neurons. • Hormones can be polypeptides, steroids, or amines. • Feedback regulation involves negative and positive feedback mechanisms. • The hypothalamus coordinates endocrine signaling, with signals traveling to the pituitary gland. • The pituitary gland stores and secretes hormones made in the hypothalamus. • Antagonistic hormone homeostasis is achieved by hormones such as insulin and glucagon.

Chapter 46: Animal Reproduction

Sexual reproduction: creation of offspring by fusion of haploid gametes, advantages: genetic variation, disadvantages: energy-intensive
Asexual reproduction: creation of offspring without fusion of gametes, advantages: rapid reproduction, disadvantages: lack of genetic variation
Examples of animals that reproduce sexually: most vertebrates, examples of animals that reproduce asexually: sponges, hydra, and some invertebrates

Fertilization and Reproductive Organs

Fertilization: union of egg and sperm, requires moist habitat for external fertilization
Internal fertilization: enables sperm to reach egg in dry environment, survival chances are higher
Male reproductive organs: testes, epididymis, vas deferens, urethra
Female reproductive organs: ovaries, oviducts, uterus

Gametogenesis

Gametogenesis: production of gametes from germ cells, mutations can pass to offspring
Spermatogenesis: formation of sperm, creates 4 sperm
Oogenesis: development of mature egg, creates 1 egg, stops at menopause

Hormones in Reproduction

Hypothalamus: secretes GnRH, directs release of FSH and LH from anterior pituitary
FSH and LH: stimulate sex hormone production by gonads
Sex hormones: testosterone, estrogens (estradiol and progesterone), regulate ovarian and menstrual cycles

Conception and Menopause

Conception: fertilization of egg by sperm in oviduct
Menopause: end of ovarian and menstrual cycles in females

Chapter 48: Neurons, Synapses, and Signaling

Neurons

Neurons: nerve cells that transfer information within the body
Structure of a neuron: cell body, dendrites, axon, synapse
Functions of neurons: transmit information, integrate information, transmit signals to muscle cells

Neurotransmitters and Signaling

Neurotransmitters: chemical messengers that pass information from transmitting neuron to receiving cell
Mechanisms of signal transmission: resting potential, action potential, depolarization

Chapter 49: Nervous Systems

Nerve and CNS

Nerve: axons of multiple neurons bundled together
CNS: central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)

PNS and Glial Cells

PNS: peripheral nervous system (neurons carrying information in and out of CNS)
Glial cells: supporting cells of neurons, nourish, support, and regulate neurons

Brain Structure

Forebrain: cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala
Midbrain
Hindbrain: cerebellum, medulla, pons

Chapter 52: An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere

Ecology

Ecology: scientific study of interactions between organisms and their environment
Subfields: population ecology, community ecology, ecosystem ecology

Biomes

Terrestrial biomes: tropical rain forests, deserts, savannas, chaparral, temperate grasslands, coniferous forests, temperate forests, tundra
Aquatic biomes: marine biomes (estuary, intertidal zone, ocean pelagic zone, coral reefs, marine benthic zone), freshwater biomes (lakes, wetlands, streams, and rivers)

Chapter 53: Population Ecology

Population

Population: group of individuals of the same species living in an area
Population density: number of individuals per unit area
Population dispersion: pattern of spacing among individuals within the population

Population Growth

Exponential growth: growth rate is proportional to population size
Logistic growth: growth rate slows as population approaches carrying capacity

Factors Affecting Population Size

Density-dependent factors: death rate increases or birth rate decreases with increasing density
Density-independent factors: birth rate or death rate does not change with population density

Chapter 54: Community Ecology

Interspecific Interactions

Competition: individuals of different species use a resource that limits survival and reproduction
Exploitation: one species benefits while the other species is harmed
Mutualism: both species benefit
Commensalism: one species benefits while the other species is not affected

Defense Mechanisms

Aposematic coloration: bright warning coloration
Cryptic coloration: camouflage
Batesian mimicry: palatable species mimics unpalatable model
Mullerian mimicry: two or more unpalatable species resemble each other

Chapter 55: Ecosystems and Restoration Ecology

Ecosystems

Ecosystem: all living organisms in an area and the abiotic factors with which they interact
Energy flow: energy enters ecosystems as sunlight, is converted to chemical energy, and is transferred to heterotrophs
Chemical cycling: cycling of nutrients between organisms and their environment

Trophic Structure

Trophic structure: feeding relationships between organisms in a community
Energy transfer: energy is transferred from autotrophs to heterotrophs

Ecological Succession

Ecological succession: pattern of colonization and species replacement following a disturbance
Primary succession: colonization of new area
Secondary succession: replacement of species in an area that has been disturbed

Chapter 56: Conservation Biology and Global Change

Biodiversity

Biodiversity: genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity
Threats to biodiversity: habitat loss, introduced species, overharvesting, global change

Conservation Biology

Conservation biology: study of preserving and protecting biodiversity
Biodiversity hotspots: areas with high levels of endemism and many endangered species

Global Change

Global change: alterations in climate, atmospheric chemistry, and broad ecological systems that reduce Earth's capacity to support life
Climate change: human activities driving climate change through release of gaseous waste into the atmosphere

Studying That Suits You

Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.

Description

This quiz covers the basics of evolution, including scientists who influenced Darwin, the definition of evolution, and the process of species adaptation over time.