Behavior Types: Phylogenetic, Ontogenetic & Responses

Behavior & Stimuli

• Phylogenetic behavior: Unlearned, innate behaviors acquired through genetics
  • Example: A baby grasping anything placed in its hand
  • Hint: Phylogenic → “Personal”
• Ontogenetic behavior: Learned behaviors acquired through experience
  • Example: Learning to ride a bike
  • Hint: Ontogenetic → “Operational”
• Reflexive response: An unlearned, automatic response to a stimulus
  • US → UR
  • Tied to respondent behavior and elicited responses
  • Example: Blinking when there's an eyelash in your eye
  • Hint: A natural reflex
• Operant response: A learned response controlled by operant conditioning and consequences
  • CS → CR
  • Tied to operant behavior and emitted/evoked responses
  • Example: Hitting the brakes when there's a red light
• Three-term contingency: The order in which things interact
  • Same format: Antecedent → Behavior → Consequence
  • SD → Response → Consequence
• Functions of behavior: Behavior can be defined in 2 ways
  • Topography: The form of a behavior; how was it done?
    • Example: He shook his hand left and right
  • Function: The purpose of a behavior; what did it accomplish?
    • Example: He shook his hand to say goodbye

Operant Stimulus Functions

• Reinforcer: Any stimulus after a behavior that increases the chances of it occurring
• Discriminative stimulus (SD): Anything that precedes a behavior and increases the chance of behavior occurring.
  • Example: A "green light" signaling it's ok to cross
  • Hint: Dad = SD = “Do it!"
• Stimulus delta (S∆): A stimulus that signals that reinforcement isn't available and decreases the chance of a response occurring
  • Example: A "red light" signaling you should stop
  • Hint: Mom = Delta = "Don't even try!"
• Punisher: Any stimulus after a behavior that decreases the chances of it occurring

Punishment 101

• Punishment: A behavioral contingency that decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring
  • Increased Intensity = Increased Effectiveness, but there may be ethical concerns
  • Punishment + reinforcement (of desired behavior) = effective
• Punishment is more effective when delivered immediately after a behavior
• Negative punishment can reinforce the use of punishment
  • Example: Kid misbehaves: Parent yells, Kid stops misbehaving (SP); the parent is reinforced for yelling
• Punishment doesn't change old behaviors or teach new behaviors, it only prevents them from recurring
  • Reinforcement of alternative behaviors = change
• Side effects of punishment:
  • Emotional distress and anxiety
  • Aggression
  • Avoidance (of the punisher or bad setting)
  • Risk of punishment overuse
  • Failure to teach alternative behaviors

Reinforcement & Behavioral Contingencies

• The 4 Basic Contingencies: occur AFTER a behavior, but the effects vary
  • Positive reinforcement: Stimulus presented after behavior, increases chance of behavior occurring
    • Example: Kid behaves well at the doctor's (R) → lollipop → kid is more likely to behave well
  • Positive punishment: Stimulus presented after behavior, decreases chance of behavior occurring
    • Example: Yelling at parent getting grounded less likely to yell at the parent
  • Negative reinforcement: Stimulus removed after behavior, increases chance of behavior occurring
    • Example: Pain → take meds (R) → no pain → more likely to take meds
  • Negative punishment: Stimulus removed after behavior, decreases chance of behavior occurring
    • Example: Breaking a valuable item (R) → getting phone taken away less likely to break items
• Overcorrection: A positive punishment procedure that excessively corrects someone
  • Restitution: Requires the person to return the bad situation/behavior to a greatly improved state
    • Example: If you drew on the wall, you clean your drawing + the whole wall
    • Hint: Fix what you did + go beyond
  • Positive practice: Requires the person to intensively practice an overly correct form of the action
    • Example: If you run down the hall, the dean tells you to walk down the hall 5 times
    • Hint: Fix what you did + do it right
• Reinforcement increases the chance of behavior occurring
• Punishment decreases the chance of behavior occurring
• Positive means adding something
• Negative means removing something

Types of Reinforcers and Punishers

• Unconditioned (Primary): Biological things that naturally reinforce or punish behavior
  • Example: Food, clothing, shelter, etc
• Conditioned (Secondary): Things that we learn to associate with reinforcement
  • Example: Money, grades, gaming, etc
• Reinforcement can also have contingencies
  • Social positive (attention): Behaviors resulting in immediate attention.
    • Example: A child tells a joke and their friends laugh. The laughter (attention) reinforces the joke-telling behavior
  • Tangible: Behaviors that let you access reinforcing stimuli
    • Example: A student finishes their homework and their mom gives them a cookie. The cookie (tangible reward) reinforces completing homework
  • Automatic positive: Behaviors that directly produce their own reinforcement (independent of others' actions); occur when alone
    • Example: A person listens to music because it makes them happy. The behavior (listening to music) reinforces itself
  • Social negative (escape): Behaviors that terminate or postpone unwanted events.
    • Example: A student fakes being sick to avoid taking an exam. By faking they escape the unwanted situation
  • Automatic negative: Behaviors that directly terminate unwanted stimulation
    • Example: A person leaves a library because it gets too noisy

Schedules of Reinforcement

• State when and how stimuli and consequences will be presented
  • Continuous reinforcement: Occurs when all responses are reinforced
    • Good for establishing operant responses and producing more resistant behaviors
    • Example: A dog gets a treat every time they sit on command
  • Intermittent reinforcement: Occurs when some responses are reinforced
    • Example: A boss gives a bonus for good performance, but not every time someone does well
• Steady-state performance: A predictable and steady response pattern; results from prior experience with a reinforcement schedule
• Transition-state performance: An irregular response pattern; results when first exposed to a reinforcement schedule
  • Fixed ratio (FR): Reinforcement delivered after a certain # of responses
    • Pattern: Break and run; B → R→ Post-reinforcement pause (PRP) → B
  • Variable ratio (VR): Reinforcement delivered after unspecified # of responses
    • Pattern: Steady, no pauses
  • Fixed interval (FI): Reinforcement delivered after a certain time
    • Pattern: Scalloped (Slow → fast)
  • Variable interval (VI): Reinforcement delivered after an unspecified time
    • Pattern: Steady and consistent
  • Both FI and VI schedules have a limited hold contingency: reinforcement is only available for a set time period after the time intervals have ended
• How to remember all these schedules
  • Fixed → Unchanging schedule
  • Variable → Irregular schedule
  • Ratio → Based on number
  • Interval → Based on time
• Ratio strain: Occurs when a subject stops responding because the amount (ratio) of responses needed for reinforcement increases too quickly
  • Example: A teacher increases the number of math problems a student needs to complete for a token from 5 to 20 without warning. The student may stop doing math problems because the task is too difficult
• Premack Principle: A less desired behavior can be reinforced by a more desirable behavior
  • Example: You don't like doing the laundry a less desirable behavior, but your mom says that once you finish, you can go out with your friends (a more desirable behavior)
  • Follows an "IF you do...THEN you can..." format
• Operant chamber: Also known as a Skinner box; used to measure
  • Response rate: The number of times a behavior occurs in a certain interval
    • Example: Rat pressed button 15 times in 1 minute

Extinction & Effects

• Extinction: Occurs when the reinforcer for a response is removed and stops the behavior.
  • Example: A child throws a tantrum to get candy, but the parent ignores them. Over time, the tantrums decrease.
• Difference between negative punishment and extinction
  • Negative punishment removes a stimulus to decrease a behavior
  • Extinction removes reinforcement for a behavior
• Extinction burst: Occurs when there is an increase in the frequency of a response after the reinforcer is removed
  • It produces operant variability and emotional responses
  • Example: The vending machine eats your dollar. You repeatedly press the button and start hitting the machine before eventually giving up
• Resistance to extinction: When responses occur even after reinforcement stops
  • Example: A student keeps raising their hand in class even though the teacher stopped calling on them because this behavior was previously reinforced
• Spontaneous recovery: Occurs when a behavior suddenly comes back after extinction
  • Example: You train your dog to salivate at the sound of a bell, but you stop reinforcing the behavior (leading to extinction). After a month, you ring the bell and your dog starts salivating again
• Reinstatement: Occurs when a behavior is recovered after re-exposure to the unconditioned stimulus
  • Example: A person quit smoking, but after a stressful day has a cigarette. This leads them to start smoking regularly again

Story Example of Extinction Process

1. After a breakup, Jake stops replying to Emma's texts; without reinforcement, she gradually texts him less [EXTINCTION]
2. When they first broke up, Emma texted and called Jake nonstop, trying to get a response [EXTINCTION BURST]
3. Despite receiving no responses, Emma kept texting for weeks before slowing down [RESISTENCE TO EXTINCTION]
4. After a month of silence, Emma suddenly texts Jake again while drinking at a bar [SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
5. Jake replies, and Emma continues to text him as before [REINSTATEMENT]

Aversive Control & Avoidance

• Aversive stimuli: Any events that organisms escape, evade, or avoid
  • Primary aversive stimuli: Events that organisms instinctively avoid
    • Example: Pain, bad smells, extreme temperatures, etc
  • Conditioned aversive stimuli: Things that we learn to avoid through experience
    • Example: Bad grades, verbal threats, criticism, etc
• Escaping terminates an ongoing aversive stimulus
  • Example: Leaving a loud room to avoid noise
• Avoiding prevents aversive stimulus from occurring
  • Example: Turning off an alarm before it rings.

Side Effects of Aversive Procedures

a. Behavioral persistence: When behavior continues despite punishment or attempts to suppress it. - Example: A child continues talking back to their parents even after being grounded multiple times b. Learned helplessness: When an individual stops trying to escape or change a negative situation after repeated failures - Example: A student fails multiple math quizzes and stops putting in effort because they believe they won't improve c. Reflexive aggression: When an organism responds aggressively to aversive stimuli, often as an automatic reaction to pain or discomfort - Example: You hit a dog and it instinctively bites you as a response. d. Social disruption: Occurs when punishment negatively affects relationships and social interactions - Example: An employee who is frequently criticized in meetings may start skipping team discussions to avoid embarrassment e. Coercion: The use of threats or force to control behavior; this can lead to resistance or negative emotional effects - Example: A teacher frequently threatens to give a detention for any minor inconvenience creating a fearful classroom atmosphere

Extra Concepts

• Controlling stimulus: A stimulus preceding a behavior that alters the likelihood of it happening; can go either way
  • Example: A traffic light controls whether drivers stop or go
• Differential response: When a difference in stimuli affects whether or not a behavior occurs
  • Example: You raise your hand to speak in class, but not in a casual conversation
• Multiple schedules: Occurs when 2+ schedules are presented in succession, each with its own controlling stimulus
  • Example: A worker follows different rules for morning and evening shifts, depending on specific conditions
• Compound schedules: When 2+ schedules of reinforcement are combined
  • Example: A child receives praise for good behavior at home (fixed ratio) and also earns stars for good behavior at school (variable ratio)
• Superstitious behavior: Behavior that is accidentally reinforced, making the individual believe it affects outcomes
  • Example: Whenever you have an exam you wear your lucky shoes because you believe it increases your luck/performance
• Generalization gradient: A visual representation of how similar stimuli can evoke similar responses; shows the strength of response to different stimuli
  • Example: A war veteran might respond fearfully to anything that sounds like a gunshot
• Matching-to-sample: Selecting a stimulus that matches a sample stimulus
  • Example: A student selects the color most similar to the one presented
• Conditional discrimination: When the meaning of a stimulus depends on the context.
  • Example: A yellow traffic light means "slow down” if far from the intersection but "speed up" if already inside
• Differential reinforcement: Reinforcing behavior in one situation but not in another
  • Example: A parent praises their child for polite speech at the dinner table but not for loud behavior
• Response chains: A series of behaviors in which each step serves as a cue for the next action
  • Example: Tying shoes involves a sequence of steps that must be completed in order
• Choice: The act of selecting one option from a distribution.
  • Example: When choosing between pizza or pasta, you decide on pizza
• Preference: An option that's selected more frequently than others
  • Example: Although you can eat either, your preference is always for pizza over pasta
• Relative rate of response (RRR): How often someone chooses one option over others
  • Example: You have 2 vending machines to choose from; sometimes you use machine B, but you use machine A the most.
  • The RRR says how much time you spend on one machine compared to the other
• Relative rate of reinforcement (RRReinf): How much reinforcement comes from one choice compared to all other available choices
  • Example: Machine A gives you snacks 3/10 times, but machine B gives snacks 8/10 times.
  • Since machine B gives more rewards, its reinforcement rate is higher than A's
• RRR and RRReinf are connected, but not dependent on each other
  • You might still like using machine A even though machine B gives more rewards
  • If behavior perfectly follows reinforcement, then we have matching relation
  • Matching relation: A principle that states that people behave in proportion to the reinforcement they receive
    • Example: You are presented with a blue pill and a red pill, the blue offers nothing while the red offers reinforcement; more people would choose the red pill because of the “reward.”