Behavior Analysis: Principles and Assumptions

Chapter 1

• Behavior definition: Activity of a living organism, public or private, influenced by external/internal stimulation.
• Public behavior is observable by anyone; private behavior is observable only by oneself.
• Two goals of behavior analysis: Accurate prediction and positive influence of behavior.
• Two assumptions of behavior analysis: Behavior is determined, and the scientific method reveals its determinants.
• "Behavior is determined" means behavior has a cause or multiple causes.
• Empirical evidence must be observable.
• Mentalistic explanation of behavior involves understanding how biological and environmental events can change behavior.
• Three problems with conscious will theory: Choice is behavior, choice is determined, and spurious reason-making.
• A falsifiable hypothesis is important because it can be proven wrong.
• Replication is vital in behavioral science to evaluate the truth and believability of scientific discoveries.

Chapter 2

• A variable is something that can change.
• Independent variable: A publicly observable change, controlled by the experimenter, that is anticipated to influence behavior.
• Dependent variable: The objectively measured target behavior.
• A functional variable is something that, if changed, will systematically and reliably influence behavior.
• Three components of a behavioral experiment: dependent variable (behavior), falsifiable hypothesis, and manipulation of the independent variable.
• Correlation does not imply causation; correlated variables tend to occur together, but one doesn't cause the other.
• Self-reports involve individuals recalling if they engaged in the behavior.
• Direct observation: Behavior is recorded as it occurs, or a lasting product is recorded later.
• A behavioral definition: Precise specification of the target behavior, allowing observers to reliably identify instances and non-instances; makes data collection objective, not influenced by personal judgments or bias.
• Social validity: Consumer/expert indicates that a behavioral definition accurately reflects the behavior of interest.
• Interobserver agreement (IOA): The extent to which two independent observers' data are the same after directly observing the same behavior at the same time. IOA = agreements / (agreements+disagreements) all times 100
• Four dimensions behavior is measured along: frequency, latency, duration, and magnitude.
• Outcome recording: Records distinct, observable, and lasting products of behavior, instead of behavior itself; used only if something is left behind.
• Event recording: Each instance of behavior is recorded as it occurs; there is no end product.
• Whole-interval recording: Used to estimate how frequently behavior occurs; observers record whether behavior occurs throughout series of contiguous intervals.
• Partial-interval recording: Used to estimate how frequently behavior occurs; observers record whether behavior occurs during any portion of series of contiguous intervals.
• Duration recording measures latency or duration of a target behavior.

Chapter 3

• Group experimental designs evaluate if behavior of a treatment group differs statistically significantly from a control group; the difference is attributed to the independent variable.
• Single-subject experimental designs expose individuals to baseline and experimental phases to determine if the independent variable systematically and reliably changes behavior.
• Internal validity: When an experiment provides clear evidence that a functional relation exists between the independent variable and behavior change.
• A confound is a variable that influences behavior within an experiment but is not controlled by the researcher.
• Comparison (AB) design has a baseline phase and an experimental phase.
• Reversal (ABA) design evaluates an individual's behavior in repeatedly alternating baseline and experimental phases.
• Alternating-treatments design rapidly turns the independent variable ON and OFF to evaluate if it systematically and repeatedly changes behavior.
• Multiple-baseline design evaluates the functional relation between an independent variable and behavior by conducting a series of time-staggered A-B comparisons across behaviors, situations, or individuals.
• Features of a single-subject experimental design:
  • Focus on behavior of individuals, not groups.
  • Each subject experiences baseline and experimental (intervention) phases.
  • Behavior is measured repeatedly in each phase until confident predictions can be made.
  • Internal validity measured through replication and evaluating confounded variables.
• Three kinds of replication in behavioral sciences: within-individual, across-individual, and across labs/clinics.
• Visual analysis looks at a graph of time-series single-subject behavior to see if a change occurred when the independent variable was introduced/removed.
• Stability in baseline phase is important.
• A change in level is the prevalence of the behavior during the stable portion of a phase/condition.
• A change in trend is a systematic change in behavior over time.

Chapter 4

• Habituation: Gradual reduction in responding following repeated presentations of the eliciting stimulus.
• Behavior analysts' stance on the nature vs. nurture debate: If behavior was entirely determined by nature, actions would be completely reflexive.
• US/UR/CS/CR:
  • Unconditioned stimulus (US): A stimulus that elicits a response without prior learning.
  • Unconditioned response (UR): The response reliably elicited by the US.
  • Conditioned stimulus (CS): A formerly neural stimulus that now evokes a conditioned response.
  • Conditioned response (CR): The response evoked by the CS.
• John Watson and Rosalie Rayner conducted the "Little Albert" experiment, contributing to the understanding of Pavlovian learning.
• Three things learned during Pavlovian learning:
  • The CS signals a delay reduction to the US.
  • The CS signals when the US is coming.
  • The CS signals which US is coming.
• Four principles of effective Pavlovian conditioning:
  • Use an important US.
  • Use a salient CS.
  • Use a CS signaling a large delay reduction to the US.
  • Ensure the CS is not redundant.
• Delay-reduction ratio is calculated by dividing the average time between US events by the CS>US interval.
• Kamin's (1969) "blocking experiment" showed that if the neural stimulus was presented on its own, it failed to evoke the conditioned response.
• Generalization: Conditioned responding to a new stimulus resembling the CS.
• Spontaneous extinction: Repeatedly presenting the CS without the US, reducing or eliminating the CS's ability to evoke the CR.
• Mary Cover Jones therapeutically reduced the fear of furry animals using extinction (reversing "Little Albert" experiment).
• Graduated exposure therapy: Client is gradually exposed to stronger approximations of the CS, with steps to reduce/eliminate fear evoked by the prior CS approximation.
• Spontaneous recovery: Increase in conditioned responding after the passage of time since Pavlovian extinction.
• Taste aversion learning: Eating something you enjoyed, then getting sick, leading to avoidance.
• John Watson joined a largest advertising firm in the US after leaving Johns Hopkins and designed advertising to evoke emotional responses.

Chapter 5

• Antecedent: An observable stimulus present before behavior occurs.
• Consequence: An observable stimulus change happening after behavior occurs.
• Response-consequence contingency: Causal (IF-> THEN) relation between an operant behavior and its consequence.
• Contingent reinforcement: Occurs when an IF -> THEN relation exists between response and consequence.
• Noncontingent reinforcement: Occurs after a response, but not because the response caused it.
• If reinforcement is given contingently, response rates increase.
• If reinforcement is changed and delivered non-contingently, response rates decrease.
• Superstitious behavior: Behaving as though a response-consequence contingency exists when it doesn't.
• Reinforcement: Process whereby a reinforcer increases operant behavior above baseline.
• Reinforcer: A consequence that increases operant behavior above baseline.
• Rewards: Beneficial consequences we think will function as reinforcers, but we aren't sure.
• Edward L. Thorndike demonstrated that reinforcers increase the probability of behavior.
• Operant behavior: Generic class of responses influenced by antecedents, with each response producing the same consequence.
• When exposed to new reinforcement contingencies, individuals respond variably and explore in a trial-and-error way.

Chapter 6

• Positive Reinforcer: Presentation of a consequence increases operant behavior above its baseline level.
• Negative Reinforcer: Consequent removal/reduction of a stimulus increases operant behavior above its baseline.
• Avoidance Consequence: A consequent prevention of a stimulus change increases operant behavior above baseline.
• Escape: Involves complete or partial removal from a stimulus.
• Heuristics are used to remember three ways to arrange reinforcement contingencies.
• Loss aversion has tendency for loss prevention to influence behavior more than presentation of same stimulus.
• Preference for positive reinforcement involves getting something you want when you succeed.
• Behavior-analytic principles can be used to positively influence behavior.
• Intrinsic motivation is a natural drive to engage in behavior for a sense of competence.
• Extrinsic reinforcers are not automatically obtained by behavior; they are artificially arranged.
• Creativity can have performance-inhibiting properties of reinforcement and it can result in choking under pressure.
• Cheating elicits can produce a positive reinforcer more easily than engaging in desired behavior.
• Response strengthening theory of reinforcement says each reinforcer strengthens the behavior it follows and more frequently a behavior is followed by a reinforcer, the more firmly it's established, and the more difficult it is to disrupt it.
• The information theory of reinforcement agrees that reinforcers increase behavior but reinforcers provide predictions of when and where subsequent reinforcers may be obtained.

Chapter 7

• Operant extinction: Responding that meets the reinforcement contingency no longer produces the reinforcer; behavior falls to baseline.
• Operant extinction can eliminate problem behavior from positive and negative reinforcement.
• Escape extinction: Responding that meets the negative reinforcement contingency no longer removes/reduces the aversive event; responding decreases to baseline.
• Partial reinforcement extinction effect (PREE) means prior reinforcement rate is directly related to how quickly behavior undergoes extinction.
• Motivation: An impending deadline increases your effort in operant extinction.
• Spontaneous recovery temporarily resumes responding after period away from extinction setting.
• Primary effect of operant extinction: Returns behavior to its baseline level.

Effects of operant extinction

• Extinction-induced emotional behavior.
• Extinction burst: Temporary increase in rate, magnitude, or duration of the previously reinforced response.
• Extinction-induced variability: Increase in variety of response topographies after extinction.
• Extinction-induced resurgence: Emitting previously reinforced (different) behaviors once an operant behavior is extinguished.
• Functional analysis of behavior helps determine if a problem behavior is an operant and identifies the reinforcer that maintains it.
• Automatic reinforcer: Consequence directly produced by the response, not provided by someone else, increases behavior above no-reinforcer baseline.
• Differential reinforcement: Previously reinforced behavior is placed on extinction while a second behavior is reinforced.

Differential reinforcement procedures

• Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA): Reinforced response can be any adaptive behavior (doesn't need to be topographically incompatible with the problem behavior).
• Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI): Response is topographically incompatible with the problem behavior.
• Functional communication training: Problematic demands for attention are extinguished while appropriate requests are established/reinforced.
• Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO): Reinforcement is contingent on abstaining from the problem behavior for a specified time period, presumably while other behavior is occurring.
• Differential reinforcement of variability: Novel responses/patterns are reinforced; repetition of recent responses is extinguished.
• Differential reinforcement of high-rate behavior (DRH): Low-rate responding is put on extinction and high-rate responding is reinforced.
• Differential reinforcement of low-rate behavior (DRL): Quickly responding is extinguished with slowly responding being reinforced.

Chapter 8

• Primary reinforcer: A consequence that functions as a reinforcer and is important for sustaining life or continuation of the species
• Conditioned reinforcer: A consequence that functions as a reinforcer, but only after learning occurs.
• Conditioned reinforcers have no reinforcing properties until the individual learns that conditioned reinforcer signals a delay reduction to the backup reinforcer.
• Token economy: Rules governing delivery of response-contingent conditioned reinforcers that may be exchanged for one or more backup reinforcers.

Arranging effective conditioned reinforcers

• Use an effective backup reinforcer.
• Use a salient conditioned reinforcer.
• Use a conditioned reinforcer that signals a delay reduction to the backup reinforcer.
• Make sure conditioned reinforcer is not redundant.
• Delay-reduction ratio is used to evaluate efficacy of a conditioned reinforcer.
• Generalized conditioned reinforcer: Conditioned reinforcer that signals a delay reduction to more than one backup reinforcer.
• Marking is when the conditioned reinforcer immediately follows the response, helping an individual learn which response produced the backup reinforcer.

Chapter 9

• Shaping: Differential reinforcement of successive approximations to a terminal behavior.

Principles of effective shaping

• Provide an objective definition of the terminal behavior.
• Evaluate what the novice player can currently do and how that falls short of the terminal behavior.
• Provides advice for setting the reinforcement contingencies.
• Reinforces one response and extinguishing other, previously reinforced responses.
• Ensures the learner has mastered the current response approximation before moving on to the next one.
• Instructs us to lower the criterion for reinforcement.
• Percentile schedule of reinforcement: A simple automated training technique incorporating the six principles of effective shaping.
• Flow: A state of immersion in a rewarding activity where you lose track of time and self.
• Backup reinforcer: the concept that we're using a single reinforcer to indicate that we're going to give them another better reinforcer in a short amount of time.
• Discriminative stimulus: Signals that the behavior needs to happen
• Marker/reinforcer: Comes immediately after behavior
• The book discusses problems with the mentalistic way "motivation" is used as an explanation of behavior. Be familiar with those critiques: mentalistic explanations of behavior: such "explanations" out the cause of behavior in the individual's vaguely defined “mind.”

Chapter 9 Continued

• Motivation operation (MO): An environmental/biological event that temporarily alters the value of a specific reinforcer and increases/decreases probable behaviors.
• Establishing operation (EO): An environmental/biological event that increase the value of a specific reinforcer and increasing the probability of behaviors yielding that reinforcer like depriving an individual of any primary reinforcer.
• Abolishing operation (AO): An environmental/biological event decreases the value of a specific reinforcer and decreasing the probability of behaviors yielding that reinforcer like stimulants that temporarily decrease the value/desire.
• A reinforcer survey is a structured interview or written survey that asks the individual to identify highly preferred activities as potential reinforcers.
• A stimulus preference assessment is a rank-ordered list of preferred stimuli obtained by observing choices between those stimuli and is used for identifying effective reinforcers.
• Preference Hierarchy: List of stimuli ran ordered from most to least preferred
• The Premack principle is a theory as to what will and will not function as a reinforce: High-probability behavior will function as reinforce when made contingent upon a low-probability behavior.
• Breaking point is the maximum amount of behavior the reinforcer with maintain.
• Four dimensions of reinforcer efficacy:
  • Contingency: Can influence its efficacy
  • Reinforcer size: Larger the reinforcer, the sooner satiation
  • Reinforcer quality: Subjective value of the reinforcer
  • Reinforcer immediacy: More effective when they are obtained immediately
• Operant behavior that, is that is evoked by antecedent stimuli and persists despite the imposition of an AO.

Chapter 10

• Punisher: A contingent consequence that decreases the future probability of behavior below its pre-punishment level.
• Punishment: The process or procedure whereby and a punisher decreases the future probability of an operant response
• Positive punishment: The contingent presentation of a consequence that decreases the future probability of the behavior below its no-punishment level
• Negative punishment: The contingent removal, reduction, or prevention of a reinforcer; the effect of which decreases the future probability of the behavior below its no-punishment level.
• Behavior analysts will use punishment in clinical setting, when the behavior is dangerous to oneself or others., and only after other interventions have failed.

Characteristics of Effective Intervention in Punishment

• Focus on reinforcement first.
• Second, combine punishment with extinction and/or differential reinforcement.
• Third, deliver punishers immediately.
• Fourth, deliver punishment contingently.
• Fifth, punish every time.
• Sixth, use a punisher in the Goldilocks zone.
• Primary punisher: A contingent consequence that functions as a punisher and in the evolutionary past of the species, this consequence decreases the chances of survival; these are inflict stimuli.
• Conditioned punisher: A contingent consequence and that signals a delay reduction to a backup punisher. This is a stimulus that signals a delay-reduction.
• Time out from positive reinforcement: Signaled response-contingent suspension of a positive-reinforcement contingency
• Provide no more than one verbal warning, timeout from the positive reinforcers are effective and when they reduce access to reinforcers, should and after no more than five and every instance of the problem behavior produces a timeout.
• Response-cost behaviors punishers: Negative punishers that involve the removal or reduction of a reinforcer
• Punishing the cheater leads to less cheating and greater profit.
• Play with punishment, because it works out better/ everyone in the long run.

Chapter 11

• Schedule of reinforcement specifies precisely, the nature of the contingent relation between a response and its reinforcer, discovered by Ferster and Skinner.
• Types and properties.
  • Fixed Ratio (FR) schedule: Reinforcer every time on the same time
  • Variable- Ratio (VR) schedule: Reinforcer on diff times.
  • Fixed interval schedule (FI): constant timer
  • VR maintains the highest response rate
• Post reinforcement pose followed by reinforce gives way to an accelerating response. Total amount of responses make a day and when decrease and increase.
• VR most behavior and at high schedule.

Chapter 12

• Antecedent stimulus.
• Discriminating operant behavior.
• Definition of all stimulus is a contingency, discrimination training, used in Africa and generalizations of behavior.

Chapter 13

• Definition of choice variables known to affect matching equation.
• Graphs that choice of reinforcement: Drug’s abuse, humans.