Animal Energy and Bioenergetics
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What is the primary difference between how animals acquire energy and how fungi acquire energy?

  • Animals acquire energy through cellular respiration, while fungi acquire energy through photosynthesis
  • Animals acquire energy through photosynthesis, while fungi acquire energy through cellular respiration
  • Animals acquire energy through ingesting food, while fungi digest their food externally (correct)
  • Animals acquire energy through external digestion, while fungi acquire energy through internal digestion

    • What is the primary factor that affects the energy consumption of an animal, leading to a higher metabolic rate?

  • Environment, with animals in colder environments having a higher metabolic rate
  • Surface-to-volume ratio, with smaller animals having a higher metabolic rate (correct)
  • Body size, with larger animals having a higher metabolic rate
  • Activity level, with more active animals having a higher metabolic rate

    • What is the energy expenditure of an animal at rest, excluding activity and digestion?

  • Energy allocation rate, which is directly proportional to body mass
  • Metabolic rate, which is inversely proportional to body mass
  • Basal metabolic rate (BMR), which is directly proportional to body mass (correct)
  • Thermoregulatory rate, which is directly proportional to body mass

    • What is the primary purpose of hibernation in animals?

    <p>To conserve energy by reducing metabolism and body temperature</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why penguins have a high energy expenditure?

    <p>Due to their cold environment, which requires more energy for thermoregulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between true hibernators and animals that can wake up quickly during hibernation?

    <p>True hibernators have a reduced metabolism, while animals that can wake up quickly have a normal metabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism used by endothermic animals to maintain a steady internal temperature?

    <p>Metabolic processes that produce heat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a thermoregulation strategy used by animals?

    <p>Insulation using fat, feathers, or fur</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of ectothermic animals?

    <p>They rely on external sources of heat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following animals is an example of an endothermic animal?

    <p>Bird</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of circulatory adaptations in thermoregulation?

    <p>To conserve heat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do naked mole-rats regulate their body temperature?

    <p>By allowing their body temperature to fluctuate with the temperature of their underground tunnels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which animal group is capable of exhibiting both ectothermic and homeothermic characteristics?

    <p>Fish</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which physiological adaptation allows walruses to conserve heat in cold environments?

    <p>Blubber</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the ability to maintain a constant internal temperature despite changes in the external environment?

    <p>Homeothermy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which behavioral adaptation do birds use to regulate their body temperature?

    <p>Seeking shade</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which physiological adaptation is used to generate heat through metabolic processes without shivering?

    <p>Non-shivering thermogenesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the brain in temperature regulation?

    <p>Detecting changes in body temperature and responding with electric impulses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of feedback loop occurs when a product reaches a high level and triggers a response to decrease production?

    <p>Negative feedback loop</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of melatonin in regulating sleep-wake cycles?

    <p>Increasing sleepiness by suppressing the nervous system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of annual rhythms in animals?

    <p>Repeating patterns that occur over the course of a year</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the internal clock in regulating circadian rhythms?

    <p>Influencing sleep-wake cycles, feeding, and other activities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the specific conditions an animal's body strives to maintain, such as osmolarity and oxygen levels?

    <p>Set points</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the nervous system in regulating animal body functions?

    <p>To provide momentary control of body functions through electrical impulses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which system is responsible for regulating body functions through the release of hormones into the bloodstream?

    <p>Endocrine system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between regulators and conformers in terms of their internal environment?

    <p>Regulators maintain a steady internal environment, while conformers allow internal conditions to follow the environment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the ability of an animal to maintain a steady internal environment despite changes in the external environment?

    <p>Homeostasis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the hypothalamus and pituitary glands in the endocrine system?

    <p>To control the endocrine system by acting as master glands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of the nervous system in terms of its control of body functions?

    <p>It provides momentary control of body functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the level of organization that is formed by organized organelles?

    <p>Cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of epithelial tissues?

    <p>Provide protection, absorption, and secretion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic that distinguishes skeletal muscle from smooth muscle?

    <p>Striation pattern</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of glial cells in nervous tissues?

    <p>Provide maintenance, nourishment, and support to neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic that distinguishes cardiac muscle from skeletal muscle?

    <p>Voluntary or involuntary control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the level of organization that is formed by organized organ systems?

    <p>Organisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic is common to both amphibians and amniotes?

    <p>Lay eggs on land</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the allantois in amniotic eggs?

    <p>Waste storage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group of tetrapods has the characteristic of producing milk for their young?

    <p>Mammals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of feathers in birds?

    <p>Insulation and flight</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic distinguishes marsupials from placentals?

    <p>Young born underdeveloped</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the chorion in amniotic eggs?

    <p>Gas exchange</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic that distinguishes vertebrates from other chordates?

    <p>Presence of a backbone that encloses the spinal cord</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic that distinguishes jawed vertebrates (gnathostomes) from jawless vertebrates?

    <p>Presence of jaws operated by muscles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of cartilaginous fish (chondrichthyes)?

    <p>They have a backbone composed primarily of cartilage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of bony fish (osteichthyes)?

    <p>They have a bony skeleton made of bony connective tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic that distinguishes lampreys and hagfish from other vertebrates?

    <p>They are jawless and have a cartilaginous skull</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is thought to be responsible for the increased complexity of vertebrates?

    <p>The duplication of hox genes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of the notochord in cephalochordates?

    <p>It persists as a flexible but supportive structure in the adult</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the pharyngeal slits in tunicates?

    <p>To allow water to pass through and aid in food collection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the defense mechanism of tunicates?

    <p>To squirt a jet of water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is unique about the post-anal tail in cephalochordates?

    <p>It is a characteristic of chordates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the cilia in the pharynx of tunicates?

    <p>To guide suspended food particles towards the esophagus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic that distinguishes cephalochordates from tunicates?

    <p>The presence of a notochord in the adult stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the notochord in chordates?

    <p>To provide protection to the dorsal nerve cord</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of pharyngeal clefts in chordates?

    <p>They form pouch-like structures that allow for gas exchange and food collection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of the dorsal hollow nerve cord in chordates?

    <p>It is composed of neurons and a fluid-filled space</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the notochord in more advanced chordates?

    <p>It is replaced by a backbone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the post-anal tail in chordates?

    <p>To aid in locomotion and balance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of the post-anal tail in humans?

    <p>It is a vestigial structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic that distinguishes echinoderms from chordates?

    <p>Deuterostomy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of phylum Chordata?

    <p>Radial symmetry</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the water vascular system in echinoderms?

    <p>Locomotion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of subphylum Cephalochordata?

    <p>Presence of a notochord in adults</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the pharyngeal slits in chordates?

    <p>Respiration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of subphylum Tunicata?

    <p>Presence of a notochord in larvae</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main characteristic that distinguishes Nematodes from Arthropods?

    <p>Exoskeletons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the body cavity in Nematodes?

    <p>Supports muscle movement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process of shedding old skin in Nematodes called?

    <p>Ecdysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do muscles contribute to locomotion in Nematodes?

    <p>By constricting the body cavity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of Nematodes that allows them to be found in almost every environment?

    <p>Bilateral symmetry</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the reproductive organs in Nematodes?

    <p>To focus energy on mating and breeding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic that is common to all Lophotrochozoa?

    <p>Bilateral symmetry and a true coelom</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of Platylhelminthes?

    <p>Hydrostatic skeleton and gastrovascular cavity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of Annelids?

    <p>Segmented body and a hydrostatic skeleton</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of Mollusks?

    <p>Unsegmented body and a shell-protected body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which class of Platyhelminthes includes free-living flatworms?

    <p>Turbellaria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of Bilateria?

    <p>Bilateral symmetry</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic is shared by all phyla in the Lophotrochozoa clade?

    <p>Bilateral symmetry</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the mantle in mollusks?

    <p>Secretion of the shell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of annelid has many bristles visible on the lateral sides of the animal?

    <p>Polykitae</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the corona in rotifers?

    <p>Feeding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic is unique to echinoderms?

    <p>Five-part symmetry</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of the numbing effect secreted by parasitic leeches?

    <p>To allow for attachment to the body without detection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of choanocytes in sponges?

    <p>To capture food and perform phagocytosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main characteristic that distinguishes Class Calcarea from Class Demospongia?

    <p>The presence of calcium carbonate spicules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the gastrovascular cavity in cnidarians?

    <p>To digest and circulate nutrients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic that distinguishes phylum Ctenophora from phylum Porifera?

    <p>Biradial symmetry and eight cones of cilia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of pinacocytes in sponges?

    <p>To form the outer layer of the sponge</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic that distinguishes Class Hexactinellida from Class Demospongia?

    <p>The presence of six-pointed spicules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic that defines the clade Bilateria?

    <p>Bilateral symmetry</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for animals where the mouth forms second, with radial cleavage and a coelom forming from pockets in the gut?

    <p>Deuterostomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for multi-cellular organisms?

    <p>Metazoans</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for animals with true tissues?

    <p>Pilateria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the sister taxa to the rest of the animals?

    <p>Porifera</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the hypothetical ancestor to all animals?

    <p>Colonial kawano flagellate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic is common to deuterostomes and defines their embryonic development?

    <p>Radial cleavage and a coelom forming from pockets in the gut</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of molting an old covering of the body, characteristic of ecdysozoans?

    <p>Ecdysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of lophotrochozoans that is involved in the development of their embryos?

    <p>Presence of certain genes that control the development of the embryos</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group of animals is the sister taxa to the rest of the animals, according to the molecular phylogenetic tree?

    <p>Sponges</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of the clade Bilateria, according to the molecular phylogenetic tree?

    <p>Bilateral symmetry</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the ancestor to all animals, according to the molecular phylogenetic tree?

    <p>Colonial kawano flagellate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of Silla mates?

    <p>They have a true coelom, a cavity completely surrounded by mesoderm cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between protostomes and deuterostomes?

    <p>The type of cleavage pattern they exhibit during development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of protostomes?

    <p>The blastopore becomes the mouth and the coelom forms by splitting from the blastopore</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between a true coelom and a pseudo coelom?

    <p>The way the coelom forms during development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of deuterostomes?

    <p>The blastopore becomes the anus and the coelom forms from a band of cells that differentiate from the endoderm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of Acl mates?

    <p>They lack a coelom and the space between ectoderm and endoderm is filled with mesoderm cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is characteristic of animals with two layers of development?

    <p>They have a gastrovascular cavity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following forms a space or coelom in animals with three layers of development?

    <p>Mesoderm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the cavity that forms when the mesoderm forms a cavity but does not completely surround the internal cavity?

    <p>Pseudo-coelom</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic that distinguishes animals with three layers of development from those with two layers of development?

    <p>Presence of a true coelom</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of an animal with two layers of development?

    <p>Cnidarian</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the layers of embryonic tissue that form during development?

    <p>Germ layers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is unique to animal cells compared to plant cells?

    <p>Lacking a cell wall</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of tissue provides structural support and protection in animals?

    <p>Connective tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process in which an animal consumes waste or dead organic matter, recycling nutrients?

    <p>Decomposition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of gastrulation in embryonic development?

    <p>Formation of a gastrula</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the type of reproduction that involves producing genetically identical offspring?

    <p>Asexual reproduction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the unique tissue that allows for movement and locomotion in animals?

    <p>Muscular tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Energy and Animals

    • All living organisms require energy to survive, which is obtained through the consumption of food
    • Animals acquire energy through ingesting food, which is different from other organisms like fungi that digest their food externally

    Bioenergetics

    • Bioenergetics is the study of the energy budget of animals, focusing on the energy acquired from food and used for various activities
    • Factors affecting energy consumption include body size, activity level, and environment
    • Metabolic rate is the amount of energy used per unit of time and can be measured by heat loss, oxygen consumption, or carbon dioxide production

    Energy Consumption and Body Size

    • Larger animals require more energy overall, but less energy per gram of body mass
    • Smaller animals require more energy per gram of body mass due to their larger surface-to-volume ratio, which increases heat loss
    • This is why smaller animals often have higher metabolic rates than larger animals

    Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

    • BMR is the energy expenditure at rest, excluding activity and digestion
    • BMR is directly proportional to body mass, with larger animals requiring more energy at rest
    • Humans have a BMR of around 1600-1800 calories per day for men and 1400-1600 calories per day for women

    Energy Allocation

    • Animals allocate energy for various activities, including basal metabolism, activity, growth, reproduction, and thermoregulation
    • The proportion of energy allocated to each activity varies depending on the species and environment

    Energy Conservation Strategies

    • Daily torpor: a physiological strategy where an animal reduces its metabolism and body temperature to conserve energy
    • Hibernation: a prolonged state of sleep with reduced metabolism, heart rate, and body temperature, lasting weeks or months

    Examples of Energy Conservation

    • Penguins: high energy expenditure for activity and thermoregulation due to their cold environment
    • Mice: high metabolic rate due to their small body size and high surface-to-volume ratio
    • Woodchucks: true hibernators, with reduced metabolism and heart rate during hibernation
    • Bears: can hibernate, but can also wake up quickly and become active if necessary

    Energy and Animals

    • All living organisms require energy to survive, obtained through consuming food
    • Animals acquire energy by ingesting food, differing from organisms like fungi that digest food externally

    Bioenergetics

    • Study of energy budget in animals, focusing on energy from food and usage for various activities
    • Factors affecting energy consumption: body size, activity level, and environment
    • Metabolic rate: amount of energy used per unit of time, measurable by heat loss, oxygen consumption, or carbon dioxide production

    Energy Consumption and Body Size

    • Larger animals require more energy overall, but less energy per gram of body mass
    • Smaller animals require more energy per gram of body mass due to larger surface-to-volume ratio, increasing heat loss
    • Smaller animals often have higher metabolic rates than larger animals

    Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

    • Energy expenditure at rest, excluding activity and digestion
    • BMR directly proportional to body mass, with larger animals requiring more energy at rest
    • Human BMR: around 1600-1800 calories per day for men, 1400-1600 calories per day for women

    Energy Allocation

    • Animals allocate energy for basal metabolism, activity, growth, reproduction, and thermoregulation
    • Proportion of energy allocated to each activity varies depending on species and environment

    Energy Conservation Strategies

    • Daily torpor: reducing metabolism and body temperature to conserve energy
    • Hibernation: prolonged state of sleep with reduced metabolism, heart rate, and body temperature, lasting weeks or months

    Examples of Energy Conservation

    • Penguins: high energy expenditure for activity and thermoregulation due to cold environment
    • Mice: high metabolic rate due to small body size and high surface-to-volume ratio
    • Woodchucks: true hibernators with reduced metabolism and heart rate during hibernation
    • Bears: can hibernate, but can also quickly wake up and become active if necessary

    Thermal Regulation

    • Ability to maintain a steady internal temperature despite changes in the external environment
    • Two types: endothermy and ectothermy

    Endothermy

    • Internal mechanisms to generate heat, such as metabolic processes
    • Examples: mammals and birds

    Ectothermy

    • Rely on external sources of heat, such as the sun or a warm rock
    • Examples: fish, invertebrates, and reptiles

    Thermoregulation Strategies

    • Insulation: using fat, feathers, or fur to reduce heat loss
    • Circulatory adaptations: counter-current heat exchange, where arteries and veins are situated close together
    • Evaporative cooling: losing heat through evaporation of water, such as sweating or panting
    • Behavioral responses: changing behavior to regulate temperature, such as seeking shade or burrowing underground
    • Metabolic adjustments: increasing metabolism to generate heat, such as shivering or non-shivering thermogenesis

    Examples of Thermoregulation

    • River otters: maintain a steady body temperature despite changes in water temperature
    • Naked mole-rats: allow their body temperature to fluctuate with the temperature of their underground tunnels
    • Fish: can be both ectothermic and homeothermic, depending on the environment
    • Birds: use feathers for insulation and behavioral adaptations to regulate temperature
    • Walruses: use blubber for insulation and behavioral adaptations to regulate temperature

    Key Terms

    • Homeothermy: maintaining a constant internal temperature despite changes in the environment
    • Poikilothermy: allowing internal temperature to fluctuate with the environment
    • Counter-current heat exchange: a circulatory adaptation that helps conserve heat
    • Vasodilation: expanding blood vessels to release heat
    • Vasoconstriction: constricting blood vessels to conserve heat
    • Evaporative cooling: losing heat through evaporation of water
    • Non-shivering thermogenesis: generating heat through metabolic processes without shivering

    Regulation of Animal Body Functions

    • Animal bodies are regulated by internal mechanisms to optimize energy use and maintain a stable internal environment.
    • Feedback control is a key concept in regulating animal body functions, involving two main systems: nervous and endocrine systems.

    Nervous System

    • The nervous system regulates body functions through electrical impulses sent by nerve cells (neurons) to specific tissues.
    • Neurons have a long extension called an axon, which transmits electrical charges that change from a polarized state to a depolarized state.
    • The nervous system provides momentary or on-demand control of body functions.

    Endocrine System

    • The endocrine system is a set of glands that produce and release hormones, which are signaling chemicals that travel through the bloodstream to reach target cells.
    • Hormones are produced by glands that don't have ducts, meaning they are released directly into the bloodstream.
    • The endocrine system is often controlled by master glands, such as the hypothalamus and pituitary.

    Regulation Strategies

    • Regulators are animals that use internal mechanisms to adjust metabolic rates, maintain a steady internal environment, and achieve homeostasis.
    • Conformers are animals that allow internal conditions to follow the environment, without regulating their internal environment.

    Homeostasis

    • Homeostasis is the ability to maintain a steady internal environment despite changes in the external environment.
    • Homeostasis is achieved through internal strategies, such as internal organs that help maintain a steady state.
    • Set points are specific conditions that an animal's body strives to maintain, such as osmolarity, oxygen levels, and temperature.

    Temperature Regulation

    • The body maintains a set point temperature of around 37°C (98.6°F) through internal mechanisms, such as sweat production and capillary expansion/contraction.
    • The brain serves as a sensor and control center, detecting changes in body temperature and responding with electric impulses to regulate body functions.

    Feedback Loops

    • Negative feedback loops occur when a product (e.g., hormone) reaches a high level, triggering a response to decrease production.
    • Positive feedback loops occur when a product (e.g., hormone) reaches a high level, triggering a response to increase production.

    Cyclical Variation

    • Cyclical variation is a type of regulation that involves regularly repeating patterns, such as circadian rhythms (daily) and annual rhythms (yearly).
    • Circadian rhythms are controlled by the body's internal clock, influencing sleep-wake cycles, feeding, and other activities.

    Melatonin and Sleep

    • Melatonin is a hormone associated with sleep, with levels increasing at night and decreasing during the day.
    • Melatonin levels peak at around 4:00 a.m. and then decrease, leading to increased metabolic activity and wakefulness.

    Annual Rhythms

    • Annual rhythms are repeating patterns that occur over the course of a year, influencing activities such as reproduction and migration.
    • Examples of annual rhythms include seasonal reproduction in animals, where reproduction occurs during specific times of the year when resources are available.

    Organization of Life

    • Life can be studied at multiple levels of hierarchical organization, including molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and organisms
    • Each level of organization exhibits emerging properties, new functions, and new abilities that are not present in the lower levels

    Levels of Organization in Animals

    • Molecules are the basic building blocks of life
    • Organelles are formed by organized molecules
    • Cells are formed by organized organelles
    • Tissues are formed by organized cells of the same kind
    • Organs are formed by organized tissues
    • Organ systems are formed by organized organs
    • Organisms are formed by organized organ systems

    Tissues in Animals

    • There are four main types of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues
    • Epithelial tissues provide protection, form outer coverings, and line internal cavities
    • Connective tissues support and connect other tissues and organs, provide elasticity and strength
    • Muscle tissues are unique to animals, providing movement and locomotion
    • Nervous tissues are unique to animals, providing sensing and response to stimuli

    Epithelial Tissues

    • Classified based on cell shape: cuboidal, columnar, and squamous
    • Functions include protection, absorption, and secretion
    • Found in outer coverings, internal cavities, and lining of organs

    Connective Tissues

    • Diverse in cell type and function
    • Functions include support, connection, and provision of elasticity and strength
    • Types include loose, fibrous, bone, cartilage, blood, and adipose tissue
    • Cells may be surrounded by an extracellular matrix

    Muscle Tissues

    • Three types: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac
    • Skeletal muscle: striated, multinucleated, and voluntary
    • Smooth muscle: non-striated, single nucleated, and involuntary
    • Cardiac muscle: striated, single nucleated, and involuntary
    • Functions include movement, locomotion, and contraction

    Nervous Tissues

    • Unique to animals
    • Functions include sensing, interpreting, and responding to stimuli
    • Types include neurons and glial cells
    • Neurons transmit signals, process information, and produce responses
    • Glial cells provide maintenance, nourishment, and support to neurons

    Tetrapod Diversity and Characteristics

    • Tetrapods have four limbs that can be arms or legs, and are characterized by limbs with digits for locomotion away from water.
    • They have a neck that allows for separate movement of the head from the rest of the body.
    • Their pelvic girdle (pelvic bones) is fused to support the body.
    • They lack gills and instead rely on lungs for respiration.
    • They have a ribcage that expands for air intake and oxygenation.

    Amphibians

    • Amphibians are the first group of tetrapods.
    • They have moist skin for gas exchange (oxygen intake and CO2 removal).
    • They use lungs for respiration, but also breathe through the mouth.
    • Their eggs require water for fertilization.
    • Examples include frogs, toads, salamanders, and caecilians.

    Amniotes

    • Amniotes have amniotic eggs with a shell (sometimes flexible, like parchment paper).
    • They have impermeable skin to prevent water loss.
    • Their embryos develop inside the egg with an allantois (waste storage) and chorion (gas exchange).
    • Examples include reptiles, birds, and mammals.

    Reptiles

    • Reptiles have scales covering their skin.
    • They are ectothermic, regulating body temperature using external sources.
    • They lay eggs on land.
    • Examples include turtles, snakes, lizards, and crocodiles.

    Birds

    • Birds have hollow, lightweight bones.
    • They have feathers for insulation and flight.
    • They are endothermic, generating heat internally.
    • They lay eggs in nests.
    • Examples include various species of birds.

    Mammals

    • Mammals produce milk for their young using mammary glands.
    • They are endothermic, generating heat internally.
    • They retain heat using hair or blubber.
    • Their brain size is larger in proportion to body size.
    • Examples include:
      • Monotremes: egg-laying mammals (e.g., platypus, echidna).
      • Marsupials: develop in a placenta, but young are born underdeveloped and complete development in a pouch (e.g., kangaroo, koala).
      • Placentals (Eutherians): develop fully in the placenta and are born with advanced development (e.g., humans, horses, giraffes).

    Vertebrates

    • Possess a backbone, which can be made of bony or cartilaginous tissue
    • Have greater motility and require a more developed nervous system and sensory organs
    • Have a more complex brain and a protective skull and vertebrae that enclose the spinal cord

    Characteristics of Vertebrates

    • Presence of a backbone (vertebrae) that enclose the spinal cord
    • A more elaborate skull that protects the brain
    • Better structures for locomotion and sensing the environment
    • More developed nervous system and sensory organs

    Mixini (Hagfish) and Lampreys

    • Most basal group of vertebrates
    • Cartilaginous skull and rudimentary vertebrate
    • Jawless (agnathans) with a mouth surrounded by sharp tooth-like structures
    • Marine animals that live on the ocean floor and are scavengers
    • Lampreys are parasitic, attaching to other fish to feed on their blood and fluids

    Nathostomes (Jawed Vertebrates)

    • Mouth operated by jaws that can open and close
    • Jaws developed from gill arches during embryonic development
    • More developed central nervous system and protective skull
    • Include sharks, bony fish, and tetrapods (amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals)
    • Duplication of hox genes thought to be responsible for increased complexity

    Jawed Fish (Gnathostomes)

    • Lateral line canal allows sensing of water currents and direction
    • Specialized hair cells detect vibrations in water
    • Complete digestive system and cloaca (shared exit for excretory, digestive, and reproductive systems)

    Cartilaginous Fish (Chondrichthyes)

    • Backbone composed primarily of cartilage
    • Include sharks, rays, and skates
    • Complex sensory system detects electrical fields and chemicals in water
    • Acute sense of smell and detection of blood in water

    Bony Fish (Osteichthyes)

    • Bony skeleton made of bony connective tissue
    • Protective operculum covers the gills
    • Paired fins (pectoral, pelvic, dorsal) aid in locomotion
    • Swim bladder helps control buoyancy
    • Reproduce by releasing eggs or sperm outside their bodies

    Invertebrate Chordates

    • Lack a backbone and vertebrae but possess the four characteristics of chordates

    Cephalochordates (Lancelets)

    • Possess a streamlined body with a mouth surrounded by cirri (tentacle-like structures)
    • Have a post-anal tail
    • Exhibit the four shared traits of chordates:
      • Notochord: a flexible, protective rod of cells that provides protection to the dorsal hollow nerve cord
      • Dorsal hollow nerve cord
      • Pharyngeal pouches that develop into pharyngeal slits, allowing water to pass through and aid in food collection
      • Post-anal tail

    Characteristics of Cephalochordates

    • Notochord remains in the adult as a flexible but supportive structure

    Tunicates (Urochordates)

    • In the larval stage, possess a notochord that provides protection to the dorsal hollow nerve cord
    • In the adult stage, the notochord disappears, leaving no backbone and no notochord
    • Retain some characteristics of chordates:
      • Pharynx with slits, allowing water to move through and bring food particles
      • Pharynx covered with cilia, aiding in guiding suspended food particles towards the esophagus
    • Also known as sea squirts due to their ability to squirt a jet of water as a defense mechanism
    • Filter feeders: collect water, filter out suspended food particles, and expel excess water through the excurrent siphon

    Chordate Characteristics

    • Chordates share four synapomorphies: notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal clefts, and a post-anal tail.

    Notochord

    • A flexible rod that runs along the length of a chordate from embryonic development to adult stages.
    • Provides protection to the dorsal nerve cord.
    • Serves as an attachment site for muscles.
    • Remains unchanged from larval to adult stages in less complex chordates (e.g., cephalochordates).
    • Replaced by a backbone (vertebrae) in more complex chordates (e.g., vertebrates).

    Dorsal Hollow Nerve Cord

    • A hollow nerve cord characteristic of all chordates.
    • Located dorsally (towards the back).
    • Composed of neurons and fluid-filled space.
    • Develops into the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) in more advanced chordates.

    Pharyngeal Clefts

    • Pouch-like structures that form behind the mouth in chordates.
    • Develop into pharyngeal slits in many chordates, allowing for gas exchange and food collection.
    • Develop into structures such as the ear, throat, and neck in more advanced chordates.

    Post-Anal Tail

    • A muscular structure that aids in locomotion and balance.
    • Present in most chordates during the adult stages.
    • Remnants in humans are the fused vertebrae at the bottom of the backbone (coccyx).
    • Important for propulsion and movement underwater in fish.

    Deuterostomes

    • Deuterostomes are animals where the blastopore becomes the anus and the mouth forms second.
    • They encompass two phyla: Echinodermata and Chordata.

    Phylum Echinodermata

    • Characterized by spiny skin, internal skeleton of calcareous plates, and a unique water vascular system.
    • Water vascular system is used for pumping and filling up the two feet for locomotion.
    • Radial symmetry in adults, but bilateral symmetry in larvae.
    • Examples of echinoderms include:
      • Sea stars (Class Asteroidea)
      • Sea urchins (Class Echinoidea)
      • Brittle stars (Class Ophiuroidea)
      • Sea cucumbers (Class Holothuroidea)
      • Sea lilies and feather stars (Class Crinoidea)

    Phylum Chordata

    • Characterized by bilateral symmetry, deuterostomy, and coelomate body.
    • Possess a single dorsal nerve cord, notochord, and post-anal tail at least during development.
    • Pharyngeal slits are present during embryonic development.
    • Subphylum Cephalochordata:
      • Includes lancelets (e.g., Amphioxus)
      • Retain the notochord throughout their life
    • Subphylum Tunicata:
      • Includes tunicates (sea squirts)
      • Have a notochord during embryonic development, but it disappears in adults

    Clade Myriapoda

    • Most invertebrates are classified in this clade due to bilateral symmetry.

    Nematodes (Roundworms)

    • Characterized by bilateral symmetry and non-segmented bodies.
    • Found in almost every environment, with an estimated thousands per cubic centimeter of soil.
    • Some are parasites of various organisms, including plants and humans.
    • Examples: pinworms, heartworms, and hookworms.

    Body Structure of Nematodes

    • Elongated, thread-like body with a complete digestive system (tube within a tube).
    • Body cavity (pseudocoelom) lined by mesoderm and endoderm.
    • No exoskeleton; instead, they have a tough cuticle that provides some support.

    Reproduction in Nematodes

    • Separate sexes with distinct reproductive organs (testes in males, ovaries in females).
    • Energy is focused on mating and breeding, with males having multiple testes.

    Hydrostatic Skeleton in Nematodes

    • Consists of a tough cuticle, muscles, and a fluid-filled body cavity.
    • Muscles help constrict the body, creating water pressure for locomotion.

    Ecdysis in Nematodes

    • Process of shedding old skin (cuticle) and secreting a new one to accommodate growth.

    Arthropods

    • Characterized by tough exoskeletons, jointed appendages, and segmented bodies.
    • Include insects, arachnids, crustaceans, and others.

    Body Structure of Arthropods

    • Exoskeleton provides protection, support, and attachment points for muscles.
    • Jointed appendages allow for flexibility and movement.
    • True coelom (body cavity) and an abundance of sensory organs.

    Examples of Arthropods

    • Arachnids (spiders, scorpions, ticks, and mites).
    • Crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, shrimp).
    • Insects (butterflies, beetles, flies, wasps, ants).
    • Myriapods (centipedes, millipedes).

    Molting in Arthropods

    • Process of shedding old exoskeleton and secreting a new one to accommodate growth.
    • Necessary for arthropods to increase in size.

    Classification of Animals

    • The majority of animals belong to the clade Bilateria, characterized by bilateral symmetry.
    • Bilateria is divided into three main groups: Deuterostomia, Ecdysozoa, and Lophotrochozoa.

    Phylum Platyhelminthes

    • Platyhelminthes are flatworms characterized by a flattened body shape.
    • They have a gastrovascular cavity, which is a single opening for food and waste.
    • They have a hydrostatic skeleton, which relies on a tough cuticle, muscle cells, and water pressure.
    • Examples of platyhelminthes include free-living flatworms, flukes, and tapeworms.

    Classifications of Platyhelminthes

    • Class Turbellaria: free-living flatworms, such as planarians.
    • Class Monogenea: parasitic flatworms, such as flukes.
    • Class Cestoda: parasitic flatworms, such as tapeworms.

    Phylum Annelida

    • Annelids are segmented worms, such as earthworms and leeches.
    • They have a true coelom and a complete digestive system.
    • They have a hydrostatic skeleton, which relies on a tough cuticle, muscle cells, and water pressure.
    • They have a concentration of sensory organs around the head region.

    Phylum Mollusca

    • Mollusks are animals with a soft, unsegmented body, often protected by a shell.
    • They have a mantle, which is a specialized tissue that secretes the shell.
    • They have a muscular foot, which is used for locomotion.
    • Examples of mollusks include snails, slugs, clams, and cephalopods.

    Phylum Brachiopoda

    • Brachiopods are marine animals that have a feeding structure called a lophophore.
    • They have a shell, which is secreted by the mantle.
    • They are often referred to as "lamp shells."

    Phylum Rotifera

    • Rotifers are small, aquatic animals that have a feeding structure called a corona.
    • They have a complete digestive system and a true coelom.
    • They are often referred to as "wheel animals" due to the rotation of their corona.

    Phylum Echinodermata

    • Echinoderms are marine animals that have a unique body shape, often with five-part symmetry.
    • They have a water vascular system, which is used for movement and feeding.
    • Examples of echinoderms include starfish, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers.

    Asexual Reproduction

    • Earthworms can reproduce asexually by cutting them in a specific location, allowing each broken part to grow into a new individual.
    • If an earthworm is cut in half and both parts survive, it will result in two worms from one original worm.

    Annellid Classes

    • Polykitae: have many bristles, visible on the lateral sides of the animal.
    • Oligokita: have few bristles, found in earthworms, which can be felt as roughness on the body.

    Earthworms

    • Earthworms are familiar animals, often used as bait in fishing.
    • They have bristles on their body, which can be felt as roughness.
    • Some species of earthworms in Australia can grow up to 9 feet in length.

    Leeches (Hirudinea)

    • Some leeches have no purpose, while others are parasites.
    • Parasitic leeches secrete a numbing effect, making it impossible to feel when they attach to the body.
    • They use this local anesthetic to suck blood without being detected.

    Phylum Porifera (Sponges)

    • Basal taxon, diverged earlier from all other animal lineages
    • Characterized by pores (ostea) and a large opening (osculum) for water flow
    • No tissues, just a grouping of similar cells with specific functions
    • Cells are not connected by cellular junctions

    Sponges: Cell Types

    • Choanocytes: flagellated cells, responsible for food capture and phagocytosis
    • Amoebocytes: amoeba-like cells, involved in digestion and distribution of nutrients
    • Pinacocytes: flat cells, form the outer layer of the sponge

    Sponges: Body Structure

    • Spongocele: the main cavity of the sponge where water collects
    • Endoskeleton: internal skeleton made of spicules (sharp, spiny objects)
    • Spicules can be made of calcium carbonate, silicon dioxide, or protein (spongin)

    Classification of Sponges

    • Class Calcarea: spicules made of calcium carbonate
    • Class Demospongia: spicules made of silicon dioxide or protein
    • Class Hexactinellida: spicules made of silicon dioxide, often with six-pointed structures

    Phylum Cnidaria

    • Radial symmetry, diploblastic (two layers of embryonic tissues: ectoderm and endoderm)
    • Body consists of three main layers: ectoderm, mesoglea, and gastrodermis
    • Gastrovascular cavity: a cavity for digestion and circulation of nutrients
    • Incomplete digestive system: food enters through the mouth, and waste is expelled through the mouth

    Cnidarians: Cell Types

    • Ectoderm: outer layer of cells, forms the epidermis
    • Gastrodermis: inner layer of cells, lines the gastrovascular cavity
    • Mesoglea: gelatinous layer between the ectoderm and gastrodermis

    Cnidarians: Body Types

    • Polyp: cylindrical body type, attached to one place
    • Medusa: bell-shaped body type, free-swimming

    Classification of Cnidarians

    • Class Hydrozoa: includes hydras and obelias
    • Class Cubozoa: includes box jellyfish
    • Class Anthozoa: includes anemones, corals, and sea fans
    • Class Scyphozoa: includes sea jellies

    Phylum Ctenophora (Cone Jellies)

    • Characterized by eight cones of cilia and biradial symmetry
    • Hydrostatic skeleton, gastrovascular cavity, and two main tissue layers

    Phylogenetic Trees of Animals

    • There are two approaches to constructing animal phylogenetic trees: morphological classification and molecular phylogenetic classification.

    Rooted Phylogenetic Tree

    • The tree is rooted, meaning it identifies a common ancestor to all animals.
    • The hypothetical ancestor is a colonial kawano flagellate, a group of single-cell organisms living in colonies.

    Metazoans

    • All animals belong to the clade Metazoa, meaning they are multi-cellular organisms.
    • The phylum Porifera is considered basal and is a sister taxa to the rest of the animals.

    True Tissues

    • Animals with true tissues are those where cells have certain features connecting them and allowing them to collaborate.
    • Most animals belong to the clade Bilateria due to their bilateral symmetry.
    • Deuterostomes are animals where the mouth forms second, and they have radial cleavage and a coelom forming from pockets in the gut.
    • Protostomes are animals where the mouth forms first, and they have a different developmental pattern.

    Phylogenetic Classification

    • The clade Pilateria includes animals with three germ layers.
    • Molecular phylogenetic classification has rearranged the way animals are classified, with some similarities to the morphological classification.

    Molecular Phylogenetic Tree

    • The molecular phylogenetic tree still includes the colonial kawano flagellate as the ancestor to all animals.
    • The sponges are an out-group, but still a sister taxa to the rest of the animals.
    • The clade Bilateria is still present, with the deuterostomes and protostomes being further subdivided.

    Deuterostomes

    • Deuterostomes are animals where the mouth forms second, and they have radial cleavage and a coelom forming from pockets in the gut.
    • They are further subdivided into the Lophotrochozoa and the Echinodermata.

    Lophotrochozoa

    • Lophotrochozoa are animals that sometimes show a feeding structure known as a trochophore, and they form an embryo or larval stage known as the trochophore.
    • They are characterized by the presence of certain genes that control the development of the embryos.

    Ecdysozoa

    • Ecdysozoa are animals that practice ecdysis, the molting of an old covering of the body.
    • They are characterized by the presence of nematodes and arthropods, which molt their exoskeleton as they grow and develop.

    Germ Layers and Body Cavity

    • Animals with three germ layers (ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm) are classified into three groups: Silla mates, pseudo Silla mates, and Acl mates.
    • Silla mates have a true coelom, a cavity completely surrounded by mesoderm cells.
    • Pseudo Silla mates have a pseudo coelom, a cavity not completely formed by mesoderm cells.
    • Acl mates lack a coelom, and the space between ectoderm and endoderm is filled with mesoderm cells.

    True Coelom vs. Pseudo Coelom

    • A true coelom is a cavity formed and completely surrounded by mesoderm cells.
    • A pseudo coelom is a cavity not completely formed by mesoderm cells.
    • Only animals with three germ layers are designated as Silla mates, pseudo Silla mates, or Acl mates.

    Protostomes and Deuterostomes

    • Protostomes and Deuterostomes are subdivisions for animals with a true coelom.
    • Protostomes have:
      • Mouth forming first from the blastopore
      • Spiral cleavage pattern
      • Coelom forming by splitting from the blastopore
      • Embryos showing terminate development
    • Deuterostomes have:
      • Anus forming first from the blastopore, and mouth forming later
      • Radial cleavage pattern
      • Coelom forming from a band of cells that differentiate from the endoderm
      • Embryos showing indeterminate development

    Protostome Development

    • Blastopore becomes the mouth
    • Spiral cleavage pattern
    • Coelom forms by splitting from the blastopore
    • Embryos show terminate development

    Deuterostome Development

    • Blastopore becomes the anus
    • Radial cleavage pattern
    • Coelom forms from a band of cells that differentiate from the endoderm
    • Embryos show indeterminate development
    • Mouth forms from an unnamed opening
    • Examples: enterocoels (coelom develops from the gut)

    Embryonic Development of Animals

    • The blastula is the first stage of embryonic development, characterized by a hollow sphere of cells filled with fluid (blastocoel).
    • Cells migrate inside the blastula to form a second layer of embryonic tissue called endoderm.
    • The formation of a complete layer of endoderm is characteristic of animals with two layers of development (diploblastic).

    Germ Layers

    • Germ layers are the layers of embryonic tissue that form during development.
    • The three main germ layers are:
      • Ectoderm (outer layer)
      • Endoderm (inner layer)
      • Mesoderm (middle layer, forms between ectoderm and endoderm)

    Classification of Animals

    • Animals can be classified based on the number of germ layers:
      • Sponges: no germ layers
      • Cnidarians: two layers (diploblastic)
      • Flatworms and higher animals: three layers (triploblastic)

    Coelom Formation

    • In animals with three layers of development, the mesoderm forms a space or coelom.
    • A true coelom forms when the mesoderm completely surrounds the internal cavity.
    • Animals with a true coelom include:
      • Mollusks
      • Arthropods
      • Echinoderms
      • Chordates
    • A pseudo-coelom (or false coelom) forms when the mesoderm forms a cavity but does not completely surround the internal cavity.
    • Animals with a pseudo-coelom include:
      • Nematodes
      • Some other invertebrates

    Body Cavities

    • In animals with a coelom, the coelom develops into spaces inside the body where organs form and function.
    • Examples of body cavities include:
      • Thoracic and abdominal cavities in humans
    • The diaphragm separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities in humans.

    Classification of Animals Based on Coelom Formation

    • Animals can be classified based on the type of coelom they have:
      • True coelom (e.g. mollusks, arthropods, echinoderms, chordates)
      • Pseudo-coelom (e.g. nematodes, some invertebrates)
      • Acoelom (e.g. flatworms, no coelom or internal cavity)

    Characteristics of Animals

    • Animals are heterotrophs, requiring energy from consuming other organisms or organic matter
    • They cannot produce their own energy like plants, relying on external sources for survival

    Types of Feeders

    • Herbivores consume plant material, acting as primary consumers
    • Carnivores feed on consumers of plants, possibly consuming other carnivores
    • Decomposers break down waste or dead organic matter, recycling nutrients
    • Parasites feed on another organism without immediate killing, occurring internally or externally

    Animal Tissues

    • Muscular tissue enables movement and locomotion
    • Nervous tissue facilitates sensory perception and communication
    • Connective tissue provides structural support and protection, e.g., bone and cartilage
    • Epithelial tissue lines and covers the body's surfaces, including cavities and organs

    Animal Cells

    • Lack cell walls, allowing for flexibility and movement
    • Support is provided by specialized tissues, such as bone, cartilage, and skin

    Reproductive Strategies

    • Asexual reproduction produces genetically identical offspring, e.g., budding or fragmentation
    • Sexual reproduction combines genetic material from two parents, resulting in a fertilized egg (zygote)

    Embryonic Development

    • Fertilized egg (zygote) undergoes rapid cell division, forming a blastula (hollow sphere of cells)
    • Blastula stage is critical in embryonic development, followed by gastrulation (formation of layers)
    • Gastrulation results in ectoderm (outer layer) and endoderm (inner layer) formation
    • Further development may lead to a third layer, forming a gastrula with three layers

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    Learn about how animals acquire energy from food and the factors that affect their energy consumption. Understand the concept of bioenergetics and its significance in the study of animals.

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