Animal Behavior and Ecology
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Questions and Answers

What distinguishes a territory from a home range in animals?

  • A territory includes all essential resources.
  • A territory is larger than a home range.
  • A territory is only for mating purposes.
  • A territory is a defended area within the home range. (correct)

    • Which territory type is specifically utilized for attracting mates?

  • All-purpose territory
  • Nesting/breeding territory
  • Feeding territory
  • Mating territory (lek) (correct)

    • What is the 'Dear enemy' effect in territorial animals?

  • It involves minimizing conflict with neighboring territory holders. (correct)
  • It describes increased aggression among neighbors.
  • It signifies territories without clear boundaries.
  • It refers to newly established territories.

    • How does density-dependent habitat selection affect animal distribution?

    <p>It reduces the preference for superior habitats as population density increases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is true navigation in the context of animal migration?

    <p>Adjusting the route based on learned landmarks.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What driving factor often leads to the phenomenon of migration in animals?

    <p>Seasonal resource exploitation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does resource holding potential indicate in territorial animals?

    <p>Physical condition or area familiarity may influence success in territorial disputes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hypothesis suggests that dispersal in animals is often biased by sex to avoid inbreeding?

    <p>Inbreeding avoidance hypothesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant energetic cost associated with migration for animals?

    <p>Increased metabolic demands and risks of predation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of territory is specifically aimed at providing resources for reproduction and rearing young?

    <p>Nesting/breeding territory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary advantage of territorial behavior in animals?

    <p>Increased reproductive success and resource access</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following hypotheses suggests that territory holders' familiarity with their resources affects their fighting willingness?

    <p>Payoff asymmetry hypothesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a cost associated with the dispersal of animals?

    <p>Energetic demands and increased predation risk</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon describes large migratory groups that benefit survival by diluting individual predation risk?

    <p>Dilution effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mechanism do animals use for navigation during migration?

    <p>Infrasound, magnetic fields, and celestial bodies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the costs associated with migration for animal species?

    <p>Increased opportunity costs in choosing suboptimal habitats</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes a migration pattern where some species exhibit both migratory and resident populations?

    <p>Partial migration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the potential downside of increased testosterone in territorial animals?

    <p>Higher fighting capability but reduced lifespan</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a possible reason for sex-biased dispersal among animal populations?

    <p>To avoid inbreeding and influenced by social structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes a consequence of increased energy expenditure for territory holders?

    <p>Increased risk of mortality due to conflicts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hypothesis explains why territory holders often win disputes despite potentially being weaker?

    <p>Payoff asymmetry hypothesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant benefit of predator swamping in migratory animals?

    <p>Lower individual predation risk</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors can significantly influence sex-biased dispersal in animal populations?

    <p>Social structure of the species</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common cost associated with the choice of a suboptimal habitat during dispersal?

    <p>Loss of fitness and survival</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What benefit of migration primarily aids animals in escaping adverse environmental conditions?

    <p>Access to seasonal resources</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mechanism is NOT mentioned as a navigational cue that animals use during migration?

    <p>Chemical trails</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential downside of increased testosterone levels in territorial animals according to research?

    <p>Decreased lifespan</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept describes the phenomenon where some species exhibit both migratory and resident populations?

    <p>Partial migration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the ideal free distribution theory predict about animal distribution?

    <p>Animals distribute based on resource availability to maximize individual fitness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the 'Dear enemy' effect influence territorial behavior?

    <p>It leads to a reduction in aggressive interactions over time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes true navigation from vector orientation in migratory animals?

    <p>True navigation integrates compass and map sense based on environmental cues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of one-way dispersal in animals?

    <p>To permanently relocate from their natal site to reduce competition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is least likely to influence vector orientation in inexperienced migratory animals?

    <p>Previous migratory experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do animals utilize map sense during migration?

    <p>To integrate learned landmarks with directional cues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What behavioral tendency does inbreeding avoidance in animals primarily lead to?

    <p>Males or females disperse from their natal areas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes sex-biased dispersal patterns in mammals and birds?

    <p>Males disperse farther in mammals, while females disperse more in birds.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary risk cost associated with dispersal for animals?

    <p>Increased predation and exposure to unfamiliar territory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which species is known for its long migratory route, traveling up to 40,000 km annually?

    <p>Arctic tern</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the predator swamping effect accomplish for migratory animals?

    <p>Reduces individual predation risk by overwhelming predators.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the tropical origins hypothesis explain the evolution of migration?

    <p>As a shift from temperate to tropical zones for seasonal resources.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant endurance feat demonstrated by the ruby-throated hummingbird during migration?

    <p>Its ability to fly continuously for 850 km across the Gulf of Mexico.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What circumstance can lead to opportunity costs during animal dispersal?

    <p>The time spent moving detracts from reproductive activities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor contributes to higher mortality risk during migration?

    <p>Exhaustion and disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What navigation method is primarily used by inexperienced starlings during migration?

    <p>Vector orientation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What learning method is exhibited by whooping cranes during migration?

    <p>Human-led guidance using puppet suits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which benefit of migration is related to reproductive success?

    <p>Access to better breeding habitats</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines dispersal in contrast to migration?

    <p>Permanent relocation without return</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the physical demands of travel in the context of migration considered to be?

    <p>A significant cost associated with migration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main advantage of long nonstop flights for migratory birds like the blackpoll warbler?

    <p>Reduction of exposure to land predators</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of sensory exploitation in communication evolution among species?

    <p>It generates new communication signals from existing biases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hypothesis suggests that the evolution of the pseudopenis in spotted hyenas may arise unintentionally due to other selective pressures?

    <p>By-product hypothesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What behavioral outcome does the submission hypothesis for the pseudopenis in spotted hyenas propose?

    <p>It indicates subordination and fosters social bonding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of the spotted hyena greeting ceremony is most likely related to communication about social structure?

    <p>Anogenital sniffing behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How might high androgen levels contribute to the evolution of the pseudopenis in hyenas?

    <p>By promoting aggressive behavior and social rank.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the social-bonding hypothesis assert about the displays seen in the spotted hyena greeting ceremony?

    <p>They play a role in reinforcing cooperative alliances within the group.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of honest signaling?

    <p>It accurately conveys information that benefits both sender and receiver.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which signaling type is specifically intended to mislead the receiver?

    <p>Deceitful signaling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does eavesdropping play in animal communication?

    <p>It allows third parties to gain information from signals not directed at them.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the honeybee waggle dance indicate the location of food sources?

    <p>By conveying direction and distance using the sun's position.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is described by the preexisting trait hypothesis in signaling?

    <p>Signals arise from modifying existing traits that provided information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the preexisting bias hypothesis suggest about signal evolution?

    <p>Signals exploit receivers' existing sensory biases for effective communications.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes functionally referent signals from other types of signals?

    <p>They are context-specific and prompt specific behavioral responses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes a sensory trap in animal communication?

    <p>A sender mimics environmental cues that target the receiver's sensory biases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes the role of badges of honor in animal signaling?

    <p>They enhance territorial disputes through increased aggression when dishonest.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the trade-off in signaling imply about resource allocation in animals?

    <p>Resources are often allocated differently based on competitive needs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is indicated by the net benefit hypothesis in signaling traits?

    <p>A trait persists if it enhances fitness more than alternative traits, despite costs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does deceitful signaling manifest in certain firefly species?

    <p>Through the mimicry of light patterns from unrelated species to attract prey.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are honest signaling costs designed to ensure?

    <p>The reliability of signals by requiring energy to produce them.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which phenomenon allows receivers to respond to signals reminiscent of ancestral species?

    <p>Ancestral signal response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of mimicry in mate attraction for certain species?

    <p>To exploit sensory biases for exaggerated traits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do ground-nesting birds adjust begging calls to minimize predation risk?

    <p>By using higher-pitched calls that are harder for predators to detect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What mechanism do male lyrebirds utilize to attract females?

    <p>Mimicking alarm calls of other birds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What framework do animals use when deciding the most effective way to communicate?

    <p>Cost-benefit framework</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic of physical traits serves as a signal of dominance in some species?

    <p>Size and intensity of markings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How may signals evolve according to the principles of communication in animals?

    <p>Through the ritualization of existing traits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do honest signals play in the communication of dominance among certain species?

    <p>They provide clear information regarding an individual's fighting ability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What kind of trade-off may occur due to exaggerated traits in courtship displays?

    <p>Enhanced visibility to predators versus improved mate attraction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does Bateman's principle influence male reproductive strategies?

    <p>Males increase reproductive success by mating with as many females as possible.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the operational sex ratio usually indicate in a population?

    <p>There are more active males than receptive females.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the fundamental asymmetry of sex impact reproductive strategies?

    <p>Females typically invest more resources into offspring than males.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term best describes the unequal reproductive success within a population?

    <p>Reproductive skew</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary influence of parental investment on reproductive strategies?

    <p>It primarily affects females, dictating their mating choices.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of intersexual selection, what trait commonly affects female mate choice?

    <p>The visual and aesthetic appeal of male traits, like peacock feathers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does intrasexual selection typically play in reproductive behavior?

    <p>It involves competition within the same sex for mating opportunities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does sex role reversal typically lead to in mating dynamics?

    <p>Females becoming selective in mate choice</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best exemplifies conditional mating tactics?

    <p>Two male baboons forming an alliance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of cryptic female choice in mating?

    <p>Allowing females to select preferred males post-copulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of sperm competition among males?

    <p>The speed and proximity of sperm to fertilize eggs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes alternative mating strategies?

    <p>Fixed genetic strategies for reproductive success</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does mate guarding primarily ensure for the male?

    <p>Prevention of competition from other males</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a defining characteristic of parental investment variations?

    <p>Methods such as carrying or protecting young</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of a direct benefit that females gain from mate choice?

    <p>Parental care or resources</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hypothesis suggests that certain male traits are preferred by females because they indicate the male's genetic quality?

    <p>Good genes hypothesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon describes the evolution of exaggerated male traits due to female preference?

    <p>Runaway selection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary outcome of chase-away selection for females in a mating context?

    <p>Exploiting sensory biases without benefits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What strategy might males employ to influence female reproductive decisions?

    <p>Offer nuptial gifts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant aspect of sexual cannibalism in the context of mating behavior?

    <p>Males sacrificing themselves to enhance fertilization success</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary outcome of infanticide in some mammal species?

    <p>Prompting females to return to estrus for mating</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following models explains how offspring can inherit advantageous traits from their parents?

    <p>Good genes model</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do male competition adaptations typically manifest in species like baboons and giraffes?

    <p>Development of larger body size and weaponry</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the courtship behavior of bowerbirds?

    <p>Building and decorating elaborate bowers to signal fitness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes chase-away selection?

    <p>Females gain no benefits from being choosy in mate selection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key aspect of female control mechanisms in reproductive strategies?

    <p>Females influencing mate selection and fertilization processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines monogamy in mating systems?

    <p>One male mates exclusively with one female during the breeding season.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hypothesis suggests why monogamy may evolve in animal populations?

    <p>It is beneficial for both parents to care for offspring together.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of the mate guarding hypothesis?

    <p>To restrict the mating opportunities of one partner.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which scenario does female-enforced monogamy typically occur?

    <p>When females actively prevent males from mating with other females.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant outcome of the infanticide hypothesis in monogamous systems?

    <p>Increased offspring survival through male protection.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primary scenario drives the mate limitation hypothesis?

    <p>High costs associated with finding a mate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hypothesis suggests that mating with multiple males leads to genetically superior offspring?

    <p>Good genes hypothesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary distinction between resource defense polygyny and lek polygyny?

    <p>Resource defense polygyny requires males to control valuable resources.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following hypotheses focuses on increasing caregiver numbers for offspring through multiple mating?

    <p>Additional care hypothesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In polygyny, what is meant by scramble competition polygyny?

    <p>Males compete to display in groups without resource protection.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hypothesis regarding polyandry suggests that it reduces the likelihood of inbreeding with a primary mate?

    <p>Inbreeding avoidance hypothesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of polygyny involves males defending groups of females, as exemplified by gorillas?

    <p>Female defense polygyny</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the diverse genes hypothesis suggest about the benefits of multiple mating in polyandry?

    <p>It increases offspring heterozygosity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the hotspot hypothesis suggest about male behavior in polygyny?

    <p>Males gather where female travel routes intersect.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hypothesis posits that females prefer large groups of males for mate selection?

    <p>Female preference hypothesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a defining characteristic of scramble competition polygyny?

    <p>Males rush to mate with dispersed females without establishing territories.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes polygynandry from other mating strategies?

    <p>Both sexes form cooperative associations with multiple partners.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Conditional mating tactics in males depend on what specific factor?

    <p>Shifts in environmental conditions affecting resource distribution.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes the main idea behind promiscuity in mating behavior?

    <p>Both sexes engage with multiple partners without forming lasting bonds.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Hotspot Hypothesis propose regarding male clustering during mating behavior?

    <p>Males cluster where females are most abundant.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a principle of the Conditional Mating Tactics?

    <p>Behavior changes based on the physical environment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary feature of Runaway Selection in the context of sexual selection?

    <p>Female preferences amplify traits that provide no survival benefit.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mating system allows for multiple partners for both sexes with shared parental care?

    <p>Polygynandry</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Female Preference Hypothesis suggest about female behavior during mating?

    <p>Females seek large male groups for easier assessment of mates.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does Cryptic Female Choice play in reproductive behavior?

    <p>Females influence sperm selection post-copulation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hypothesis addresses the evolution of communication signals through existing traits?

    <p>Preexisting Trait Hypothesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements best describes Predator Swamping?

    <p>A strategy where larger groups reduce overall awareness of predators.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant energetic cost associated with territorial behavior in animals?

    <p>Greater risk of injury during territorial disputes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes an alternative mating strategy where individuals adapt their approach based on social contexts?

    <p>Conditional strategy that allows for flexibility based on circumstance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hypothesis emphasizes how sensory preferences can influence mate choice in lekking species?

    <p>Female Preference Hypothesis highlighting female choice</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the functions of nuptial gifts in the context of sexual cannibalism?

    <p>To increase female selection pressure on mates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of migration strategy is exhibited by the Bar-tailed Godwit, characterized by an impressive nonstop flight capability?

    <p>Obligate migration covering vast distances without stops</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Home Range

    • Area used by an animal, containing resources needed for survival and reproduction.
    • Encompasses all essential resources.

    Territory

    • A portion of the home range defended by an animal.

    Types of Territories

    • All-purpose territory: Contains food, water, and nesting sites (e.g., wolf packs).
    • Nesting/breeding territory: Includes the nest and nearby area, separate from feeding zones.
    • Mating territory (lek): A display site for attracting mates, often lacking resources.

    Habitat Selection

    • Density-dependent habitat selection: Preference for superior habitats declines as population density increases.

    Ideal Free Distribution Theory

    • Animals distribute themselves within a habitat to maximize resource intake.
    • Resulting in balanced density across available resources

    Territory Holders

    • Resource holding potential: Territory holders may prevail due to superior physical condition or familiarity with the area.
    • “Dear enemy” effect: Neighboring territory holders minimize conflict.

    Dispersal

    • Inbreeding avoidance hypothesis: Dispersal reduces inbreeding risk; often sex-biased.

    Migration

    • Large-scale, cyclical movement to exploit seasonal resources.
    • Evolution of migratory behavior:
      • Tropical origins (shift to temperate zones for breeding)
      • Temperate origins (migration to tropics for winter)
    • Compass and map sense: Animals orient using environmental cues (sun, stars, magnetic fields).
      • Vector orientation: Basic compass direction maintained by inexperienced migrators.
      • True navigation: Adjusted route based on learned landmarks (used by experienced migrators).

    Costs and Benefits

    • Energetic costs of migration: high metabolic demands and predation risks.
    • Benefits: Access to better resources.

    Home Range and Territories

    • Home range encompasses essential resources for survival and reproduction
    • Territory is a defended area within the home range
    • All-purpose territory contains food, water, and nesting sites (e.g., wolf packs)
    • Nesting/breeding territory encompasses the nest and nearby area, separate from feeding zones
    • Mating territory (lek) is a display site for attracting mates, often lacking resources

    Habitat Selection

    • Density-dependent habitat selection: Preference for superior habitats declines as population density increases
    • Ideal free distribution theory: Animals will distribute themselves to maximize resource intake, achieving balanced density

    Territory Holders

    • Resource holding potential: Territory holders may prevail due to superior physical condition or familiarity with the area
    • “Dear enemy” effect: Neighboring territory holders minimize conflict

    Dispersal

    • Inbreeding avoidance hypothesis: Dispersal reduces inbreeding risk; often sex-biased

    Migration

    • Migration is a large-scale, cyclical movement to exploit seasonal resources
    • Evolution of migratory behavior: Origins include tropical origins (shift to temperate zones for breeding) and temperate origins (migration to tropics for winter)
    • Compass and map sense are required for migration; animals orient using environmental cues (sun, stars, magnetic fields)
    • Vector orientation: Basic compass direction maintained by inexperienced migrators
    • True navigation: Adjusted route based on learned landmarks (used by experienced migrators)

    Energetic Costs of Migration

    • High metabolic demands
    • Predation risks
    • Counterbalanced by access to better resources

    Territoriality Benefits and Costs

    • Increased Reproductive Success: Territory holders have higher reproductive success and resource control, leading to increased fitness.
    • Increased Energy Expenditure: Maintaining a territory requires significant energy resources.
    • Risk from Conflicts: Territorial disputes can lead to injuries or even death.
    • Testosterone's Role: Increased aggression in territorial defense, potentially linked to a shorter lifespan.

    Territoriality Theories

    • Arbitrary Contest Resolution: Territorial holders often win disputes simply due to their established position, regardless of strength.
    • Payoff Asymmetry: Territory holders value their familiar resources more than intruders, motivating them to fight more fiercely.

    Sex-Biased Dispersal

    • Reduces Inbreeding: One sex disperses farther to avoid mating with close relatives.
    • Social Structure Influence: In mammals, males often disperse; in birds, females typically disperse.

    Costs of Dispersal

    • Energetic Demands: Traveling to a new territory requires energy expenditure.
    • Predation Risk: Dispersal exposes individuals to increased predation threats.
    • Opportunity Costs: Suboptimal territories may lead to lower resource access and reproductive success.

    Benefits of Migration

    • Seasonal Resource Access: Migrations allow animals to exploit seasonal resources and escape unfavorable conditions.
    • Higher Survival Rates: Migrators often experience higher survival rates compared to sedentary populations.

    Migration Strategies and Benefits

    • Predator Swamping: Large migratory groups can overwhelm predators by reducing the individual risk of predation.
    • Partial Migration: Some species have both migratory and resident populations.
    • Dilution Effect: Traveling in groups reduces individual predation risk by overwhelming predators.

    Mechanisms of Migration

    • Environmental Cues: Animals utilize various environmental cues, including infrasound, magnetic fields, and celestial bodies, for navigation.

    Territoriality

    • Benefits: Increased reproductive success and access to resources
    • Costs: Increased energy expenditure and risk from conflicts
    • Hormonal Influence: Testosterone increases aggression but may reduce lifespan (evident in Yarrow’s spiny lizard study)
    • Arbitrary Contest Resolution Hypothesis: Territory holders often win conflicts by default, regardless of their strength
    • Payoff Asymmetry Hypothesis: Territory holders value familiar resources more than intruders, affecting their willingness to fight

    Dispersal

    • Sex-biased Dispersal: One sex typically disperses farther than the other to avoid inbreeding
    • Social Structure's Role: Male dispersal is common in mammals, while female dispersal is prevalent in birds
    • Costs: Energetic demands, increased predation risk, and opportunity costs if a suboptimal habitat is chosen

    Migration

    • Benefits: Access to seasonal resources and escape from adverse conditions
    • Survival Rates: Migrants may have higher survival rates
    • Predator Swamping: Large migratory groups dilute individual predation risk, improving survival
    • Partial Migration: Some species have both migratory and resident populations (e.g., common blackbird)
    • Dilution Effect: Group travel reduces individual predation risk by overwhelming predators
    • Mechanisms: Animals use environmental cues like infrasound, magnetic fields, and celestial bodies for orientation

    "Dear Enemy" Effect

    • Neighbors reduce aggressive interactions over time, despite being enemies.
    • This reduces boundary disputes.

    One-Way Dispersal

    • Individuals permanently relocate from their birth site.
    • Usually done to decrease competition or inbreeding.

    Inbreeding Avoidance

    • Males or females leave their natal areas to prevent mating with relatives.
    • This helps maintain genetic diversity.

    Ideal Free Distribution Theory

    • Animals distribute themselves based on the availability of resources.
    • This maximizes individual fitness by finding the best areas for food and shelter.

    Vector Orientation

    • Inexperienced migratory animals maintain a consistent direction.
    • This is used regardless of learned locations and cues.

    True Navigation

    • Experienced animals use a combination of compass and map sense.
    • They adjust their migratory routes based on environmental cues.

    Compass Cues in Migration

    • Sun, stars, magnetic fields, and landmarks are used for directional orientation.
    • Animals rely on these cues to maintain course.

    Map Sense

    • Integration of learned landmarks with compass directions.
    • Allows experienced animals to navigate precisely and accurately.

    Sex-Biased Dispersal

    • Mammals - males typically disperse farther than females.
    • Birds - females typically disperse farther than males.

    Costs of Dispersal

    • Risk costs: Increased predation and unfamiliar territory make dispersal risky.
    • Opportunity costs: Time spent dispersing could be used for reproduction or other fitness-enhancing activities.

    Animal Migration Examples

    • Arctic Tern: Longest migratory route, traveling between the Arctic and Antarctic, covering up to 40,000 km annually.
    • Ruby-throated Hummingbird: Nonstop 850 km flight across the Gulf of Mexico, demonstrating extreme endurance.
    • Sooty Shearwater: Travels over 60,000 km annually, the longest migration among birds.

    Migration Evolution Hypotheses

    • Tropical origins hypothesis: Migration may have evolved as a shift from tropical to temperate zones for richer seasonal resources.
    • Temperate origins hypothesis: Migration evolved as a shift toward tropical wintering grounds to escape temperate winters.

    Predator Swamping Effect

    • Migratory animals in large groups reduce individual predation risk by overwhelming predators.

    Mortality Risk During Migration

    • Migratory periods have higher mortality rates due to exhaustion, predation, and disease.
    • Bar-tailed godwit migration illustrates how long, nonstop flights (10,000 km) can promote survival and minimize mortality risk.

    Transatlantic Migrations

    • Blackpoll warblers perform long nonstop flights across the Atlantic to avoid predators.
    • Inexperienced starlings utilize vector orientation for navigation.
    • Experienced starlings rely on both compass and map sense to navigate.

    Learned Migration

    • The whooping crane migration demonstrates learned migratory behavior.
    • Humans have successfully guided cranes using puppet suits, allowing them to learn a migration path.

    Dispersal vs. Migration

    • Dispersal is one-way relocation.
    • Migration is cyclical and seasonal, with individuals returning to the original location.

    Advantages of Migration

    • Access to resources: Migration allows animals to exploit resources that are seasonally available.
    • Avoidance of adverse climates: Migration helps animals escape harsh weather conditions.
    • Increased reproductive success: Migration provides access to better breeding grounds, increasing reproductive opportunities.

    Costs of Migration and Territoriality

    • Energy expenditure: Traveling long distances and defending territories requires significant energy.
    • Predation risk: Migrating and defending a territory can increase the risk of being preyed upon.
    • Physical demands: Migration and territorial defense require physical stress on an animal's body.

    Communication

    • Communication involves a sender, a signal, a receiver, and a response.
    • The sender emits a signal, and the receiver perceives and responds to it.

    Cumulative Selection

    • Cumulative selection describes the evolutionary process where complex systems develop through incremental modifications.
    • Each modification builds upon previous ones, leading to the emergence of complex traits over time.

    Sensory Exploitation

    • In sensory exploitation, new communication signals evolve by capitalizing on preexisting sensory biases of receivers.
    • This means that receivers may already have a predisposition to respond to certain stimuli, making those stimuli more effective as communication signals.

    Spotted Hyena Greeting Ceremony

    • The spotted hyena greeting ceremony involves anogenital sniffing between individuals, with females displaying an erect pseudopenis.
    • This behavior is thought to serve multiple social functions, including social bonding, hierarchy communication, and possibly even reproductive signaling.

    Pseudopenis Evolution in Hyenas

    • The evolution of the pseudopenis in spotted hyenas may be a by-product of high androgen levels in females.
    • High androgen levels are associated with aggression and social dominance in hyenas, and may have unintentionally led to the development of the pseudopenis.

    By-Product Hypothesis

    • This hypothesis suggests that a trait may arise as an unintended consequence of selection for another trait.
    • The pseudopenis in hyenas is often cited as a classic example of a by-product, as it may have evolved as a result of selection for high androgen levels, which is linked to social dominance.

    Submission Hypothesis

    • The submission hypothesis posits that the pseudopenis in hyenas signals subordination and encourages bonding.
    • This suggests that the pseudopenis may be a way for individuals to indicate their lower social standing and promote a submissive attitude, which may be helpful for maintaining social harmony.

    Social-Bonding Hypothesis

    • The social-bonding hypothesis proposes that the hyena greeting ceremony, including the pseudopenis display, reinforces cooperative alliances within groups.
    • The display's social function may be to strengthen bonds between individuals, promoting cooperation and group cohesion.

    Honest Signaling

    • Benefit both the sender and receiver
    • Accurate and reliable information transfer
    • Examples: Physical size and strength

    Deceitful Signaling

    • Sender benefits by misleading the receiver
    • Receiver suffers a cost
    • Example: Mimicry

    Eavesdropping

    • Third party intercepts signals unintended for them
    • Example: Predator listening to prey communication

    Functionally Referent Signals

    • Context specific signals
    • Evoke specific responses
    • Example: Meerkat alarm calls signaling types of predators

    Honeybee Round Dance

    • Used for food sources within 50 meters of the hive
    • Communicates location relative to the sun
    • Food source direction is indicated by the bee’s angle of movement

    Honeybee Waggle Dance

    • Used for food sources farther than 50 meters
    • Indicates direction and distance
    • Direction is relative to the sun's position
    • Distance is indicated by the duration of the waggle run

    Preexisting Trait Hypothesis

    • Signals evolve from pre-existing traits with informative value
    • Example: Piloerection (hair standing on end) becoming an aggression signal

    Preexisting Bias Hypothesis

    • Signals exploit receivers’ sensory biases
    • Often related to mate attraction
    • Example: Bright colors appealing to receivers’ sensory preferences

    Sensory Trap

    • Senders exploit receivers' pre-existing sensory biases by mimicking environmental cues
    • Example: Anglerfish use light lures

    Ancestral Signal Response

    • Receivers may respond to signals similar to those of ancestral species, even if the signal is lost in their own species
    • Example: Sticklebacks respond to signals that are no longer relevant to their current species

    Honest Signaling Costs

    • Signals that require energy to produce are more reliable
    • Example: Threat displays in lizards, where larger, more energetic displays are more reliable indicators of fighting ability

    Badges of Honor

    • Physical markers that communicate social status
    • Example: Face markings in paper wasps, where dishonest signaling can lead to increased aggression

    Trade-off in Signaling

    • Animals often allocate resources between different signals based on the type of competition
    • Example: Red-collared widowbirds trade off tail length and collar brightness

    Deceitful Signaling in Fireflies

    • Photuris fireflies mimic Photinus female signals to lure and prey on Photinus males

    Net Benefit Hypothesis

    • A trait persists, despite potential costs, if it contributes more to fitness than alternative traits

    Illegitimate Receivers

    • Predators or rivals can intercept signals intended for other individuals.
    • Tungara frog calls attract fringe-lipped bats, which prey on them.

    Predation and Signaling

    • Signaling can be risky due to predation.
    • Signalers may adjust their calls to reduce risk.
    • Ground-nesting birds use higher-pitched begging calls which are harder for predators to detect.

    Lyrebird Eavesdropping

    • Male lyrebirds mimic alarm calls of other birds to attract females.
    • This creates a false impression of predator presence, mimicking an advantage.

    Honest Signals of Dominance

    • Physical traits, like size and markings, can convey fighting ability or social status.
    • Paper wasps and antlered flies exhibit this with body size and marking intensity.

    Mimicry in Mate Attraction

    • Traits in courtship displays exploit sensory biases to attract mates.
    • These traits can be exaggerated, leading to trade-offs in other fitness areas.

    Cost-Benefit Framework in Communication

    • Animals use signals that balance energy cost, risk of deception, and potential fitness benefits.

    Evolution of Communication

    • Signals can evolve from ritualization of existing traits.
    • Signals can exploit sensory biases to maximize survival and reproductive advantages.

    Sexual Selection

    • Drives evolution of traits that increase reproductive success.
    • Two main forms: intersexual and intrasexual.
    • Intersexual selection involves mate choice, often by females, selecting for traits enhancing attractiveness.
    • Intrasexual selection involves competition between individuals of the same sex for mates.

    Reproductive Skew

    • Refers to the unequal distribution of reproductive success within a population.
    • Some individuals mate more frequently than others, leading to skewed reproductive outcomes.

    Fundamental Asymmetry of Sex

    • Explains differences in reproductive strategies between males and females.
    • Males expend less energy on gametes (sperm) compared to females (eggs).
    • Leads to males often seeking multiple mating opportunities, while females prioritize mate quality.

    Bateman’s Principle

    • Outlines the sex-specific benefits of mating.
    • Males increase reproductive success by mating with multiple females.
    • Females gain more by selecting high-quality mates.

    Parental Investment

    • Resources allocated to offspring by parents.
    • Typically higher for females due to the greater investment in eggs and gestation.
    • Influences mating strategies and reproductive success.

    Operational Sex Ratio

    • Ratio of sexually receptive males to females.
    • Often skewed towards males, leading to increased competition for mates.
    • Dictates the intensity of competition and sexual selection.

    Sex Role Reversal

    • Occurs when males invest more in offspring than females.
    • Leads to females competing for mates while males become more selective.
    • Example: Phalaropes, where males incubate eggs and care for young.

    Parental Investment Variations

    • Includes behaviors like carrying offspring, providing nuptial gifts, or protecting young.
    • Can significantly impact mate choice.
    • Higher investing sex is often more selective in choosing mates.

    Conditional Mating Tactics

    • Flexible mating behaviors based on environmental conditions.
    • Lower-ranked males may adopt alternative tactics like forming alliances to increase mating success.
    • Example: Baboons, where lower-ranking males may form coalitions to access females.

    Alternative Mating Strategies

    • Fixed genetic strategies that lead to different reproductive success.
    • Example: Sponge isopods exhibit territorial males, satellite males (mimicking females), and female mimics.
    • Bluegill sunfish have alternative mating strategies, including nesting males, satellite males, and sneakers.

    Sperm Competition

    • Occurs when sperm from multiple males compete to fertilize eggs.
    • Strategies include faster sperm, larger ejaculate volume, or closer proximity to eggs.
    • Can influence the evolution of male reproductive traits.

    Mate Guarding

    • Behavior where an individual prevents their mate from copulating with others.
    • Aims to ensure paternity and reduce the risk of sperm competition.
    • Example: Blue milkweed beetles guard their mates to prevent other males from mating.

    Cryptic Female Choice

    • Female's ability to control sperm selection internally after copulation.
    • Allows females to favor certain males even after mating.
    • May involve mechanisms like sperm storage or selective fertilization.

    Direct Benefits of Mate Choice

    • Females gain immediate advantages, such as parental care, resources, or protection.
    • Hangingflies provide nuptial gifts, which are resources offered by males to females during courtship.
    • Females gain direct benefits from mating with males who provide these resources.

    Indirect Benefits of Mate Choice

    • Females choose mates to provide genetic advantages for offspring.
    • Good genes hypothesis: Females select males with traits that indicate genetic quality, which can be passed to offspring.

    Runaway Selection

    • Females’ preference for specific traits leads to increasingly exaggerated traits across generations.
    • This can result in extravagant physical features or behaviors in males.

    Chase-Away Selection

    • Male traits evolve to exploit females’ sensory biases, with no benefits to females.
    • This can lead to a co-evolutionary arms race where males become more manipulative and females become more resistant.

    Sexual Cannibalism

    • Males sacrifice themselves to females as a nuptial gift, increasing fertilization success.
    • Redback spiders are an example of sexual cannibalism, with females consuming males after mating.

    Control of Reproductive Decisions

    • Males and females use strategies to influence each other’s reproductive choices.
    • Strategies include courtship displays, resource provision, and sexual coercion.

    Infanticide

    • A strategy employed by some male mammals to bring females back into estrus.
    • Involves the killing of offspring.

    Female Control Mechanisms

    • Females influence reproductive outcomes.
    • Strategies include selecting mates, controlling fertilization, and deciding offspring investment.

    Indirect Benefits Models

    • Explains why females choose certain mates.
    • Focuses on benefits that enhance offspring survival and reproductive success.

    Good Genes

    • Offspring inherit traits that contribute to their survival and fitness.

    Runaway Selection

    • Traits become more elaborate due to mutual selection between attractiveness and preference.
    • Both males and females contribute to the evolution of exaggerated traits.

    Chase-away Selection

    • Males exploit female sensory biases, while females receive no benefit from being choosy.
    • Leads to an evolutionary arms race between males and females.

    Bowerbird Courtship

    • Males construct elaborate bowers to attract females.
    • Bower decorations signal male fitness and cognitive abilities.
    • Females choose mates based on the quality and complexity of the bower.

    Male Competition Adaptations

    • Physical traits evolve to enhance success in mate competition.
    • Examples include body size, weaponry, and display behavior.
    • Species like baboons and giraffes exhibit these adaptations.

    Mating Systems

    • Defined by the number of partners each sex has during a breeding season
    • Include monogamy, polygyny, polyandry, polygynandry, and promiscuity

    Monogamy

    • One male mates with one female
    • Can be social (pair bonding with extra-pair copulations) or genetic (exclusive offspring)

    Mate Limitation Hypothesis

    • Monogamy evolves when finding mates is difficult or costly

    Mate Guarding Hypothesis

    • Monogamy is favored when individuals can restrict their partner’s mating opportunities

    Mate Assistance Hypothesis

    • Monogamy benefits offspring survival when both parents contribute to care

    Infanticide Hypothesis

    • Monogamy may evolve to protect offspring from infanticide by unrelated males

    Female-Enforced Monogamy

    • The female prevents the male from mating with others
    • Example: burying beetles

    Polyandry

    • Polyandry: A mating system where one female mates with multiple males.
    • This unique mating system has several proposed evolutionary hypotheses:
      • Good genes hypothesis: Females aim for genetically superior offspring by mating with multiple males.
      • Compatible genes hypothesis: Females seek genetically complementary sperm, increasing offspring fitness.
      • Diverse genes hypothesis: Mating with multiple males leads to offspring with increased genetic diversity (heterozygosity).
      • Inbreeding avoidance hypothesis: Mating with multiple males reduces the risk of inbreeding with a primary mate.
      • Additional resources hypothesis: Provides access to resources controlled by multiple mates for the female.
      • Additional care hypothesis: Increases the number of caregivers for offspring, improving survival chances.

    Polygyny

    • Polygyny: A mating system where one male mates with multiple females.
    • The type of polygyny depends on female distribution and the availability of resources:
      • Female defense polygyny: Males defend groups of females to control access, as in the case of gorillas.
      • Resource defense polygyny: Males control valuable resources that attract females, such as seen in Grevy's zebras.
      • Lek polygyny: Males assemble in groups to display and attract females, with no resources defended.
      • Scramble competition polygyny: Males compete to locate and mate with widely dispersed females.

    Lek Polygyny Hypotheses

    • Hotspot Hypothesis: Males congregate at locations where female travel routes intersect, increasing the chance of encountering females.
    • Hotshot Hypothesis: Subordinate males gather around attractive males to capitalize on female attraction, hoping to gain access to females.
    • Female Preference Hypothesis: Females prefer large groups of males, enabling them to efficiently compare and select the highest quality mate.

    Other Mating Systems

    • Scramble Competition Polygyny: Males compete to mate with widely scattered females, with little or no territorial defense.
    • Polygynandry: Both males and females have multiple partners within a social group, often cooperating in raising offspring.
    • Promiscuity: Both sexes have multiple partners without forming long-term bonds, common in species with minimal parental care.
    • Conditional Mating Tactics: Males adapt their mating strategies based on environmental factors, potentially shifting from resource defense to female defense depending on territory resources.

    Territoriality

    • Payoff Asymmetry Hypothesis: Resident individuals, who value familiar resources, are more likely to defend their territory than newcomers.

    ### Migration

    • Species-Specific Migration Feats:
      • Ruby-throated Hummingbird: Makes a nonstop flight of 850 km across the Gulf of Mexico.
      • Sooty Shearwater: Travels over 60,000 km annually.
      • Arctic Tern: Migrates 40,000 km between Arctic and Antarctic.
    • Predator Swamping: Large migratory groups reduce individual predation risk by overwhelming predators.
    • Navigation Mechanisms:
      • Infrasound, magnetic fields, and celestial cues.
      • Vector orientation: Used by inexperienced migrators for basic compass directions.
      • True navigation: Used by experienced migrators with landmarks.

    ### Communication

    • Hotspot Hypothesis: Males cluster in areas where female travel routes intersect.
    • Hotshot Hypothesis: Subordinate males gather around attractive males (hotshots) to increase interaction with females.
    • Female Preference Hypothesis: Females prefer large groups of males for easier comparison and choice.
    • Preexisting Trait Hypothesis: Signals evolve by modifying traits that already provided information. For example, a raised crest signifying aggression.
    • Preexisting Bias Hypothesis: Signals exploit preexisting sensory biases in receivers, aiding in mate attraction or species recognition.

    ### Reproductive Behavior

    • Alternative Mating Strategies:
      • Conditional Mating Tactics: Mating behavior varies based on environmental conditions. Baboons form alliances to gain access to females.
      • Fixed Alternative Strategies: Genetically based mating strategies, such as territorial males, satellite males, and female mimics in sponge isopods, remain consistent throughout life.
    • Cryptic Female Choice: Females control sperm selection after copulation to favor preferred males.
    • Runaway Selection: Female preference for specific traits leads to increasingly exaggerated traits, limited only by natural selection.
    • Chase-Away Selection: Male traits evolve to exploit female sensory biases. Yet, females do not gain benefits, leading to an evolutionary "arms race."

    ### Mating Systems

    • Polygynandry: Both sexes have multiple partners within social groups, often with shared parental care, as seen in dunnocks.
    • Polyandry Hypotheses:
      • Additional Care Hypothesis: Multiple mates lead to increased caregivers for offspring.
      • Compatible Genes Hypothesis: Females mate with multiple males to increase the likelihood of genetic compatibility.
      • Diverse Genes Hypothesis: Increased mating leads to offspring with higher genetic heterozygosity.
    • Types of Polygyny:
      • Female Defense Polygyny: Males defend groups of females (e.g., gorillas).
      • Resource Defense Polygyny: Males control resources that attract females (e.g., Grevy’s zebra).

    Territoriality

    • Some animals expend significant energy defending territories, particularly during breeding seasons.
    • This energy expenditure could impact longevity.

    ### Migration

    • Sooty Shearwaters and Bar-tailed Godwits demonstrate endurance feats during migration.

    Communication

    • Male lyrebirds mimic sounds to attract mates, highlighting the concept of sensory exploitation.
    • Lekking behaviours can be explained by various hypotheses: Hotspot, Hotshot, and Female Preference.

    Reproductive Behaviour

    • Different species of animals can employ alternative mating strategies, divided into fixed genetic and conditional strategies.
    • Sponge isopods exhibit fixed genetic strategies, where females mimic males.
    • Baboons form alliances as a conditional strategy.
    • Male redback spiders present nuptial gifts as a form of direct reproductive investment.

    Mating Systems

    • Polyandry, where females mate with multiple males, can be driven by various hypotheses beyond the Good Genes hypothesis.
    • These hypotheses include the Compatible Genes and Diverse Genes hypotheses.

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