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Questions and Answers
What type of illumination does an electron microscope use?
Which stain is primarily used to identify nucleic acids in the cell?
What is the primary color imparted to the cytoplasm when using Eosin stain?
Which of the following pairs correctly identifies a stain and its specificity?
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What does the 'H&E' stain primarily refer to?
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What is the main structural feature of the cell membrane?
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Which type of lipid is most abundant in the cell membrane?
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What role does cholesterol play in the cell membrane?
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Which protein type is permanently attached to the cell membrane?
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How do glycolipids primarily function in the cell membrane?
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What is one of the primary functions of membrane proteins?
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What type of end do phospholipid molecules have that is hydrophilic?
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Which of the following is NOT a function of membrane proteins?
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What is the venue for the lecture on the Respiratory system?
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How many continuous assessments will count towards the final coursework grade?
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What is the pass mark required for assessments?
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At what time are the assessments scheduled to begin?
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What type of question formats will be included in the assessments?
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Which week does the first lecture on Muscle tissue take place?
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How many questions will be available for each assessment on Canvas?
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What should a student do if they fail an assessment?
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What role does the glycocalyx play on the extracellular surface of the cell membrane?
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What defines a peripheral membrane protein?
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Which transport mechanism utilizes energy to move ions against their concentration gradient?
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What is the primary function of phagocytosis in multicellular organisms?
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What does the nuclear envelope do?
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Which structure is primarily responsible for packaging DNA into compact forms in eukaryotic cells?
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Exocytosis is best described as which of the following processes?
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What happens to pinocytotic vesicles once they are formed inside the cell?
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What is the primary function of lysosomes within a cell?
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What is the optimal pH of the lumen within lysosomes for enzyme activity?
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Which component of the cytoskeleton is primarily responsible for providing strength and structural support?
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What is one of the key functions of microtubules in eukaryotic cells?
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What is contained within the matrix of mitochondria relevant to protein synthesis?
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Which type of filament is primarily responsible for cell motility and changes in cell shape?
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What distinguishes the outer and inner membranes of a mitochondrion?
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Which of the following organelles is involved in plasma membrane repair and cell signaling processes?
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Study Notes
Welcome Introduction and The Cell
- Lecture 1 takes place on September 26th at Boole 3
- Lecture 1 covers welcome introductions and the cell
- You can find out the examination dates yourself
Anatomical Terminology
- Lecture 2 takes place on September 27th at Boole 4
- Lecture 2 covers anatomical terminology
Skeletal System 1
- Lecture 3 takes place on October 3rd at Boole 3
- Lecture 3 covers the skeletal system, part 1
Skeletal System 2
- Lecture 4 takes place on October 4th at Boole 4
- Lecture 4 covers the skeletal system, part 2
Joints 1
- Lecture 5 takes place on October 10th at Boole 3
- Lecture 5 covers the joints, part 1
Joints 2
- Lecture 6 takes place on October 11th at Boole 4
- Lecture 6 covers the joints, part 2
Muscle Tissue 1
- Lecture 7 takes place on October 17th at Boole 3
- Lecture 7 covers muscle tissue, part 1
Muscle Tissue 2
- Lecture 8 takes place on October 18th at Boole 4
- Lecture 8 covers muscle tissue, part 2
Cardiovascular System 1
- Lecture 9 takes place on October 24th at Boole 3
- Lecture 9 covers the cardiovascular system, part 1
Cardiovascular System 2
- Lecture 10 takes place on October 25th at Boole 4
- Lecture 10 covers the cardiovascular system, part 2
Respiratory System
- Lecture 11 takes place on October 31st at Boole 3
- Lecture 11 covers the respiratory system
Urinary System
- Lecture 12 takes place on November 1st at Boole 4
- Lecture 12 covers the urinary system
Nervous System 1
- Lecture 13 takes place on November 7th at Boole 4
- Lecture 13 covers the nervous system, part 1
Nervous System 2
- Lecture 14 takes place on November 8th at Boole 3
- Lecture 14 covers the nervous system, part 2
Digestive System 1
- Lecture 15 takes place on November 14th at Boole 3
- Lecture 15 covers the digestive system, part 1
Digestive System 2
- Lecture 16 takes place on November 15th at Boole 4
- Lecture 16 covers the digestive system, part 2
Reproductive System 1
- Lecture 17 takes place on November 21st at Boole 3
- Lecture 17 covers the reproductive system, part 1
Reproductive System 2
- Lecture 18 takes place on November 22nd at Boole 4
- Lecture 18 covers the reproductive system, part 2
Assessment
- Assessment dates are the student's responsibility
- Assessments are delivered online via Canvas, in the form of 5 x 20% assignments
- Assessments are completed in one sitting - once you start, you can't return later
- Each assessment is a series of 40 questions
- Questions are in MCQ or fill-in-the-blanks format
- The pass mark is 40%
- Students who fail must repeat the examination in the autumn
Electron Microscope
- An electron micrograph is produced using an electron microscope
- An electron microscope uses a beam of accelerated electrons to illuminate the sample
Stains
- Stains can be used to identify specific structures or molecules
- Haematoxylin stains nucleic acids purple/blue
- Eosin stains elastic and reticular fibres red/pink
- Toluidine blue is a general cell stain, staining both nucleus and cytoplasm blue
- Silver stains nerve and reticular fibres black/brown
- Periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) stains carbohydrates purple/blue
- Alcian blue stains acidic epithelial mucins and extracellular matrix of support cells blue
- Cyanin stains myelin purple
Haemotoxylin & Eosin stain
- H&E is the most commonly used staining system
- Eosin is acidic, staining structures red or pink, such as the cytoplasm
- Haematoxylin is basic
Cell Membrane
- The cell membrane separates the cell contents (cytoplasm) from the extracellular fluid (interstitial fluid)
- The cytoplasm is composed of cytosol and organelles
- The cell membrane has the following functions:
- Physical isolation
- Regulation of exchange with the environment
- Sensitivity to the environment
- Structural support
Structure of the Cell Membrane
- The membrane is formed by a lipid bilayer, with specialized proteins and surface carbohydrates
- Each lipid molecule is amphipathic, with a hydrophilic (phosphate) end and a hydrophobic (lipid) end
- This forms a bilayer in water
Membrane Phospholipid Molecule
- Membrane phospholipid molecules are the main component of cell membranes
- They determine the fundamental properties of the cell membrane
- The cell membrane is composed of a lipid bilayer, with phospholipid hydrophobic groups facing inward and hydrophilic groups facing outward
- Protein molecules are embedded in this basic structure
- Carbohydrate groups project from some proteins and glycolipids
Membrane Lipids
- There are 3 types of membrane lipids:
- Phosphoglycerides (also known as phospholipids)
- Make up ~50% of the membrane lipid
- Surround and anchor proteins
- Examples include phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylserine, and phosphatidylethanolamine
- Cholesterol
- Stabilises the membrane
- Glycolipids
- Important for intercellular communication
- Examples include sphingolipids, gangliosides
- Phosphoglycerides (also known as phospholipids)
Membrane Proteins
- Membrane proteins have the following functions:
- Attach cytoskeletal filaments to the cell membrane
- Attach the cell to the extracellular matrix
- Transport molecules into and out of the cell
- Act as receptors for chemical signalling between cells
- Possess specific enzymatic activity
Integral Membrane Proteins (IMPs)
- IMPs are permanently attached to the biological membrane
- IMPs make up a significant fraction of proteins encoded in an organism's genome
Peripheral Membrane Proteins
- Peripheral membrane proteins adhere only temporarily to the biological membrane
- They can attach to integral membrane proteins, or penetrate the peripheral regions of the lipid bilayer
- Regulatory protein subunits of many ion channels and transmembrane receptors may be defined as peripheral membrane proteins
Membrane Carbohydrates
- Membrane carbohydrates are mainly on the extracellular surface, forming a coating called the glycocalyx
- They have the following functions:
- Lubrication and protection
- Anchoring and locomotion
- Specificity in binding
- Recognition
Transport Across Cell Membranes
- Transport across the cell membrane can occur by:
- Diffusion: Gases, lipophilic molecules, or small molecules passively move across the membrane
- Active transport: Requires energy to move molecules against the concentration gradient (e.g, Na2+ ions)
- Bulk transport: This involves large molecules or particles being transported across the membrane using vesicles: - Endocytosis: Materials are brought into the cell - Pinocytosis: Small particles suspended in extracellular fluid are brought into the cell through an invagination of the cell membrane - Phagocytosis: Large particles are engulfed by the cell membrane, forming a phagosome - Exocytosis: Molecules are transported out of the cell through an energy-dependent process
The Nucleus
- The nucleus is bounded by the nuclear envelope
- It communicates with the cytoplasm through nuclear pores
- It contains:
- Cellular DNA
- Nucleoli (rRNA, mRNA, tRNA)
- Nucleoproteins
Chromatin
- Chromatin is a complex of DNA and protein found in eukaryotic cells
- Its primary function is packaging long DNA molecules into more compact structures
- DNA wraps around histone proteins, forming nucleosomes. This is known as the "beads on a string" structure
Lysosomes
- Lysosomes are membrane-bound spherical organelles containing hydrolytic enzymes
- These enzymes break down many kinds of biomolecules engulfed by the cell
- The lysosome membrane has a specific composition of proteins, and the lumen has a pH of ~4.5–5.0, optimal for hydrolytic enzymes
- Lysosomes are involved in various cell processes, including plasma membrane repair, cell signalling, and energy metabolism
Mitochondria
- Mitochondria are membrane-bound organelles
- They have outer and inner membranes, separated by the intermembranous space
- They are responsible for energy (ATP) production
- The matrix contains many enzymes and small amounts of mitochondrial DNA
Cytoskeleton
- The cytoskeleton is composed of three main components:
- Microfilaments: Long, thin filaments of action (5nm diameter)
- Functions include cytokinesis, amoeboid movement, cell motility, and changes in cell shape
- Intermediate filaments: Desmin, glial fibrillary acidic protein, keratin, lamin, neurofilaments, vimentin (10nm diameter)
- The most stable component of the cytoskeleton, found in durable structures such as hair, scales, and fingernails
- Microtubules: and tubulin (25 nm diameter)
- Provide platforms for intracellular transport
- Involved in a variety of cellular processes, including the movement of secretory vesicles and organelles
- Microfilaments: Long, thin filaments of action (5nm diameter)
- The cytoskeleton provides strength and structural support for the cell and its organelles
- Interactions between cytoskeletal components are involved in moving organelles and changing the cell's shape.
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Description
This quiz covers the key topics from a series of anatomy and physiology lectures, including the introduction to the cell, anatomical terminology, the skeletal system, joints, and muscle tissue. Test your understanding of these fundamental concepts as you prepare for your examinations. Each section builds upon the last, providing a comprehensive overview of human anatomy.
