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Questions and Answers
What is the primary function of the stomach?
Which salivary enzyme starts the process of starch digestion?
How is diverticulitis different from diverticulosis?
What causes dental caries?
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Which section of the digestive tract contains the most villi and why?
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Why is the pancreas both an endocrine and an exocrine gland?
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What is the role of gastrin in digestion?
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What type of hepatitis is usually transmitted through blood transfusions or sexual contact?
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Study Notes
Accessory Organs of the Digestive System
- The four accessory organs of the digestive system are the salivary glands, the liver, the gallbladder, and the pancreas.
Layers of the GI Tract Wall
- The four layers of the GI tract wall are:
- Mucosa
- Submucosa
- Muscularis
- Serosa
Diverticulitis vs. Diverticulosis
- Diverticulosis is the condition of having pouches in the wall of the colon.
- Diverticulitis is the inflammation or infection of these pouches.
Ruptured Appendix
- A ruptured appendix can lead to:
- Peritonitis: inflammation of the peritoneum, the lining of the abdominal cavity
- Sepsis: a life-threatening condition caused by the body's response to infection
- Death
Bile
- Bile is produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder.
Dental Caries
- Dental caries, also known as cavities, are caused by bacteria that break down sugars in the mouth, producing acids that erode tooth enamel.
Salivary Enzymes
- Salivary amylase is the enzyme in saliva that begins the digestion of starch.
GERD and Heart Attacks
- Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) can cause chest pain that mimics a heart attack.
Sphincters
- Sphincters are circular muscles that constrict or relax to control the passage of substances through a tube or opening.
Stomach Function
- The primary function of the stomach is to mechanically digest food and chemically digest proteins.
Rugae
- Rugae are folds in the lining of the stomach that allow it to expand when it is full.
Pepsin
- Pepsin is an enzyme that breaks down proteins in the stomach.
Villi
- The small intestine contains the most villi because they increase the surface area for absorption of nutrients.
Liver Functions
- The liver has multiple functions, including:
- Producing bile
- Detoxifying blood
- Storing glucose and vitamins
Pancreas as Endocrine and Exocrine Gland
- The pancreas acts as both an endocrine and exocrine gland because it secretes hormones (endocrine) and digestive enzymes (exocrine).
Hepatitis Transmission
- Hepatitis B is typically transmitted through blood transfusions or sexual contact.
Gastrin in Digestion
- Gastrin is a hormone that stimulates the production of gastric juice in the stomach.
Large Intestine Parts and Functions
- The large intestine consists of:
- Cecum: absorbs water and electrolytes; site of appendix
- Colon: absorbs remaining water and electrolytes; compacts waste
- Rectum: stores feces
- Anal canal: expels feces
Healthy BMI
- According to the BMI chart, a healthy BMI is between 18.5 and 24.9.
Human Sperm Chromosomes
- A human sperm cell contains 23 chromosomes.
Meiosis and Fertilization
- Meiosis is the process of creating gametes (sperm and egg), while fertilization is the union of a sperm and egg.
Bulboutethral Glands
- Also called Cowper's glands, they secrete fluid that lubricates the urethra.
Testes Contents
- The testes contain:
- Seminiferous tubules: where sperm cells are produced
- Leydig cells: produce testosterone
- Blood vessels: supply nutrients and remove waste
- Connective tissue: supports the structure
Optimal Temperature for Sperm Development
- The optimal temperature for normal sperm development is slightly lower than body temperature.
Process Illustrated in Figure 17.4
- Figure 17.4 illustrates the process of spermatogenesis, which is the production of sperm cells.
Negative Feedback Control of Testosterone
- Testosterone and inhibin exert negative feedback control, regulating testosterone levels in the blood and sperm production.
Fertilization Site
- Fertilization usually occurs in the fallopian tubes.
Uterine Stretch
- The uterus stretches to accommodate a growing fetus.
Stages of Follicle Development (Figure 17.8)
- The six stages a single follicle goes through are:
- Primordial follicle
- Primary follicle
- Secondary follicle
- Tertiary follicle
- Graafian follicle
- Corpus luteum
LH Spike
- The LH spike occurs during the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle.
Progesterone Levels and Fertilization
- If fertilization occurs, progesterone levels will rise.
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