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Questions and Answers

How is active immunity acquired following clinical infection?

  • Through transfer of maternal antibodies through placenta
  • Through subclinical infection
  • Through administration of immunoglobulins or antiserum
  • Through direct exposure to the infectious agent (correct)

    • What is an example of passive immunity?

  • Administration of immunoglobulins or antiserum
  • Following subclinical infection
  • Transfer of maternal antibodies through milk (correct)
  • Following vaccination

    • How is active immunity acquired following vaccination?

  • Through subclinical infection
  • Through the introduction of a weakened or inactive form of the infectious agent (correct)
  • Through direct exposure to the infectious agent
  • Through transfer of maternal antibodies through placenta

    • What is the source of homologous pooled human antibody?

    <p>Combining IgG antibody fraction from adult donors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    For what purpose is homologous pooled human antibody used?

    <p>Postexposure prophylaxis for hepatitis A and measles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of immunity is provided by homologous pooled human antibody?

    <p>Passive immunity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the source of homologous human hyperimmune globulin?

    <p>Plasma of humans with high levels of the antibody of interest</p> Signup and view all the answers

    For what purpose is homologous human hyperimmune globulin used?

    <p>Postexposure prophylaxis for diseases such as hepatitis B, rabies, tetanus, and varicella</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of immunity is provided by homologous human hyperimmune globulin?

    <p>Passive immunity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the source of heterologous hyperimmune serum?

    <p>Equine (horses)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What conditions can be treated using heterologous hyperimmune serum?

    <p>Botulism and diphtheria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of all vaccines?

    <p>To stimulate the immune system to develop long-lasting immunity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of immunity do vaccines provide?

    <p>Active acquired immunity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of eliciting an immune response against an antigen through vaccination?

    <p>To ensure a much stronger secondary reaction upon re-exposure to the antigen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a component included in vaccines to reduce contamination during the manufacturing process?

    <p>Antibiotics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of including stabilizers in vaccines?

    <p>To maintain their effectiveness during transport and storage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are preservatives added to vaccines?

    <p>To reduce contamination during the manufacturing process</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most effective method of preventing infectious diseases?

    <p>Vaccination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the immunity achieved when a large portion of a community is immune to a specific disease?

    <p>Herd immunity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which disease was eradicated from the world due to widespread immunity (herd immunity) achieved through vaccination?

    <p>Smallpox</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following components is included in some vaccines to enhance immune response?

    <p>Adjuvants</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of including conjugated proteins in some vaccines?

    <p>Enhance the immune response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do adjuvants play in vaccines?

    <p>Enhance the immune response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of vaccine uses live infectious agents without any alteration?

    <p>Live</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which virus is used to provide cross-immunity against variola virus?

    <p>Cowpox virus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of vaccine is not pathogenic but antigenic?

    <p>Live attenuated vaccine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of live vaccines?

    <p>They provide long-lasting immunity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why should live attenuated vaccines not be given to individuals with weakened immune systems?

    <p>Because they may cause disease in individuals with weakened immune systems</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of live attenuated vaccines?

    <p>They can still generate an immune response similar to a natural infection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of immune response is primarily stimulated by killed or inactivated vaccines?

    <p>Humoral immune response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary drawback of killed or inactivated vaccines compared to live attenuated vaccines?

    <p>They provide shorter-lasting immunity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why may periodic booster doses be required for killed or inactivated vaccines?

    <p>To maintain antibody levels over time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of vaccine is created using recombinant DNA technology?

    <p>Recombinant Vaccines</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are fractional vaccines made from?

    <p>Parts of pathogens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of vaccine uses intact pathogens to provide immunity?

    <p>whole Vaccines</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key difference between Toxoid and Subunit vaccines?

    <p>Toxoid vaccines are detoxified toxins made non-pathogenic but still antigenic, while Subunit vaccines are made from extracted cellular components like polysaccharides or specific proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of adjuvants in Toxoid vaccines?

    <p>Enhance vaccine potency</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What makes Subunit vaccines highly effective and safe?

    <p>They are made from extracted cellular components found in bacterial capsules or specific proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between pure polysaccharide-based vaccines and conjugate polysaccharide-based vaccines?

    <p>Pure vaccines consist of long sugar chains from bacterial capsules, while conjugate vaccines have polysaccharides chemically linked to proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What makes conjugate polysaccharide-based vaccines more potent compared to pure polysaccharide-based vaccines?

    <p>Chemical linkage of polysaccharides to proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the composition of pure polysaccharide-based vaccines?

    <p>Long sugar chains from bacterial capsules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do mRNA vaccines work?

    <p>By introducing a piece of mRNA that corresponds to a viral protein found on the viral envelope</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action for mRNA vaccines?

    <p>Introducing a piece of mRNA that corresponds to a viral protein found on the viral envelope</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the specific target of the introduced mRNA in mRNA vaccines?

    <p>Viral envelope</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In direct hybridization, what is the role of the probe?

    <p>To hybridize with the target sequence of DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of DNA sequence does direct hybridization detect?

    <p>Relatively short and unique to the pathogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when the probe is bound to the target in direct hybridization?

    <p>The label gives off a signal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the automated cycler (thermocycler) in PCR?

    <p>To rapidly heat and cool the test tubes containing the reaction mixture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many major steps are involved in a PCR process?

    <p>Three</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of DNA polymerase in PCR?

    <p>To repetitively amplify targeted portions of DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what temperature does denaturation occur in PCR?

    <p>72°C</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what temperature does annealing occur in PCR?

    <p>50-65°C</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what temperature does extension occur in PCR?

    <p>72°C</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs during the annealing step of PCR?

    <p>Forming double strands of DNA between primers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens during denaturation in PCR?

    <p>Unwinding the DNA template</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of each cycle of amplification in PCR?

    <p>Exponential increase in DNA amount</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is the amplified DNA sequence analyzed after PCR?

    <p>Gel electrophoresis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the first step in the technique commonly used in molecular biology to detect RNA expression?

    <p>Transcription of RNA into cDNA by reverse transcriptase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the template for the PCR reaction in the technique used to detect RNA expression?

    <p>cDNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What enzyme is responsible for transcribing RNA into complementary DNA (cDNA) in the technique used to detect RNA expression?

    <p>Reverse transcriptase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of multiplex PCR in molecular biology?

    <p>To amplify multiple targets in a single PCR experiment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a multiplexing assay, what does the use of multiple primer pairs in a reaction mixture allow for?

    <p>Amplification of more than one target sequence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes multiplex PCR from standard PCR?

    <p>Amplification of multiple targets in a single PCR experiment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of real-time PCR (qPCR)?

    <p>To amplify nucleic acids and detect the amplified product in the same closed automated system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of method is real-time PCR (qPCR)?

    <p>Quantitative method for determining the concentration of pathogens in various samples</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of RFLP analysis in molecular biology?

    <p>To identify DNA sequence polymorphisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of restriction enzymes in RFLP analysis?

    <p>To cleave DNA at specific recognition sites</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are DNA sequence polymorphisms distinguished in RFLP analysis?

    <p>By displaying different migration profiles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of hybridization between labelled DNA from a microorganism and the immobilized probe on a DNA microarray?

    <p>Increased fluorescence intensity at specific spots</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of PCR in the analysis of DNA microarrays?

    <p>To amplify the DNA obtained from a clinical specimen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of hybridization between labelled DNA from a microorganism and the immobilized probe on a DNA microarray?

    <p>Formation of a complementary base sequence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs if the labelled DNA from the microorganism and the immobilized probe have a non-complementary base sequence?

    <p>No hybridization occurs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of complementary base sequence between the labelled DNA from the microorganism and the immobilized probe?

    <p>It indicates the presence of the specific DNA sequence in the sample</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of the prokaryotic genome?

    <p>It is haploid with a single circular chromosome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the extra chromosomal pieces of DNA found in the prokaryotic genome called?

    <p>Plasmids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following are considered moveable genetic elements in the prokaryotic genome?

    <p>Plasmids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a moveable genetic element in the prokaryotic genome?

    <p>Plasmids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a mobile genetic element that can infect and replicate within bacteria?

    <p>Bacteriophages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of plasmids?

    <p>They replicate independently of chromosomal replication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can plasmids carry?

    <p>Antibiotic resistance genes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the potential outcome of plasmids integrating into the bacterial chromosome?

    <p>They replicate with the bacterial chromosome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can plasmids carry?

    <p>Antibiotic resistance genes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a possible genetic element that plasmids can carry?

    <p>Transposons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Apart from antibiotic resistance genes, what else can plasmids carry?

    <p>Toxin genes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are moveable genetic elements in the prokaryotic genome that can transfer genetic information by insertion into bacterial chromosome or plasmids?

    <p>Transposons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of genes may moveable genetic elements in the prokaryotic genome contain?

    <p>Antibiotic resistance genes and virulence factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of integrons?

    <p>They consist of an integrase gene and a series of antibiotic resistance genes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do integrons contain in addition to antibiotic resistance genes?

    <p>Insertion sequences and a promoter region</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the capability of integrons in terms of independent replication?

    <p>They are not capable of independent replication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do pathogenicity islands contain in addition to virulence-associated genes?

    <p>secretation, toxin, adhesion, regulatory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of integrase and transposase genes within pathogenicity islands?

    <p>Facilitate the integration of pathogenicity islands into the bacterial chromosome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of replication occurs in virulent phages?

    <p>Lytic replication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do temperate phages replicate within the host cell?

    <p>Lysogenic replication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is lysogenic phage conversion?

    <p>A change in the phenotype of bacteria due to limited expression of genes within a prophage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of lysogenic replication?

    <p>Lysogenic phage conversion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of lysogenic replication on bacterial phenotype?

    <p>Limited expression of genes within a prophage leading to a change in phenotype</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Gram(+) cells, how does the contact occur during conjugation?

    <p>Between a plasmid-encoded adhesin on the donor cell and receptors on the recipient cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Gram(-) cells, how does the contact occur during conjugation?

    <p>Through sex pili</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary means of genetic material transfer during conjugation?

    <p>One-way transfer of genetic material from donor to recipient by means of physical contact</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of contact during conjugation in Gram(-) cells?

    <p>Through sex pili</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main form of genetic material transfer during conjugation?

    <p>One-way transfer of genetic material from donor to recipient</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of F (fertility) factors in bacterial conjugation?

    <p>Facilitate the creation of a sex pilus for conjugal transfer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when the F plasmid integrates into chromosomal DNA in bacterial conjugation?

    <p>Creates high-frequency recombination (Hfr) donors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which bacterium is considered the recipient in bacterial conjugation?

    <p>F− strain without the F plasmid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the bacterium with F plasmid (F+ strain) in conjugation?

    <p>It is the donor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines the bacterium without F plasmid (F− strain) in conjugation?

    <p>It is the recipient</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of R factors in bacteria?

    <p>Confer drug resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are resistance genes frequently carried in bacteria?

    <p>transpoosons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is the resistance phenotype expressed in bacteria?

    <p>By natural selection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do the terms 'F' and 'R' indicate when used in relation to plasmids?

    <p>They indicate the incorporation of bacterial chromosomal DNA into the plasmid structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can occur when previous conjugation event takes place?

    <p>The plasmid picks up adjacent chromosomal DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the plasmid picking up some adjacent chromosomal DNA during a conjugation event?

    <p>The plasmid carries a mixture of plasmid genes and chromosomal genes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary outcome of conjugation between F+ and F- cells?

    <p>Formation of F+ and F+ cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can be the result of conjugation between F+ and F- cells?

    <p>Formation of F+ and F- cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between prototrophs and auxotrophs in bacterial growth?

    <p>Prototrophs can grow on minimal medium, while auxotrophs require specific nutrients or supplements to grow on minimal medium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the minimal medium composed of for bacterial growth?

    <p>Inorganic salts, a carbon source, and water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    On what type of medium can auxotrophs grow?

    <p>Minimal medium plus one or more specific nutrients or supplements, or on rich media</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of temperate phages in transduction?

    <p>Transfer of host DNA sequences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of phage is involved in phage-mediated transfer of host DNA sequences?

    <p>Temperate phages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes transduction from other mechanisms of genetic material transfer?

    <p>Phage-mediated transfer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between generalized transduction and specialized transduction?

    <p>The type of DNA packaged in the bacteriophage coat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is contained in the transducing particle in generalized transduction?

    <p>Only host DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In specialized transduction, what do the transducing phages contain?

    <p>Both viral and host genes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of transformation in recombinant DNA research?

    <p>To introduce human genes into bacteria for large-scale production of human gene product</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the natural occurrence of transformation in bacteria?

    <p>Uncommon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In transformation, what is the direct uptake and recombination of DNA fragments facilitated by?

    <p>Competent bacteria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which enzyme is responsible for the transfer of DNA-bound protein synthesis instructions to mRNA during transcription in bacteria?

    <p>RNA polymerase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of sigma factor in bacterial transcription?

    <p>Mediating RNA polymerase binding to the promoter region</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where does the assembly of polypeptide chains from the mRNA transcript occur?

    <p>Ribosomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which genes are present in the lac operon?

    <p>lacZ, lacY, and lacA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What controls the expression of genes for lactose metabolism in the lac operon?

    <p>Repressor protein</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are the genes in the lac operon transcribed?

    <p>As a single mRNA under control of one promoter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the binding site for RNA polymerase in the lac operon?

    <p>Promoter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which regulators control the activation and deactivation of the lac operon in response to lactose and glucose levels?

    <p>Lac repressor and catabolite activator protein (CAP)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the enzyme that performs transcription in the lac operon?

    <p>RNA polymerase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the lac repressor in the lac operon?

    <p>Inhibits transcription of the lac operon by binding to the operator</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the operator in the lac operon?

    <p>It regulates access of RNA polymerase to the promoter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the lac repressor inhibit transcription of the lac operon?

    <p>By preventing RNA polymerase from transcribing the operon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the lac repressor in the lac operon?

    <p>It normally blocks transcription of the operon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the lac repressor in the presence of lactose?

    <p>It stops acting as a repressor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What causes the lac repressor to lose its ability to bind DNA in the presence of lactose?

    <p>Allolactose, an isomer of lactose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the lac repressor in the lac operon?

    <p>To bind DNA and prevent RNA polymerase from transcribing the operon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of allolactose in the lac operon?

    <p>It binds to the lac repressor and induces a change in its shape, preventing it from binding to DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What molecule does Catabolite activator protein (CAP) sense to act as a glucose sensor?

    <p>cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When is Catabolite activator protein (CAP) active?

    <p>When glucose levels are low (cAMP levels are high)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When can the lac operon be transcribed at high levels?

    <p>When glucose is absent</p> Signup and view all the answers

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