A-Level Sociology: Perspectives

• Sociology is the study of society, social behavior, and social change.
• It examines the structure of groups, organizations, and societies, and how people interact within these contexts.
• AQA (Assessment and Qualifications Alliance) is a UK examination board that provides GCSE and A-Level qualifications.
• A-Level Sociology is a subject that explores various sociological perspectives and theories to understand social issues and institutions.

Key Sociological Perspectives

• Functionalism views society as a system of interconnected parts working together to maintain stability.
• Emphasizes social order, consensus, and shared values.
• Key thinkers include Émile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons.
• Marxism focuses on social inequality and conflict, particularly between the bourgeoisie (owners of capital) and the proletariat (workers).
• Highlights the role of economic structures in shaping social relations.
• Karl Marx is the central figure in Marxist theory.
• Feminism examines gender inequality and the social construction of gender roles.
• Explores how gender intersects with other forms of inequality, such as race and class.
• Different strands of feminism exist, including liberal, socialist, and radical feminism.
• Social Action Theory (Interactionism) focuses on micro-level interactions and the meanings individuals attach to social actions.
• Emphasizes the role of symbols, language, and interpretation in shaping social behavior.
• Key figures include Max Weber, George Herbert Mead, and Erving Goffman.
• Postmodernism questions grand narratives and universal truths, emphasizing diversity, fragmentation, and the role of media and technology in shaping identity and reality.
• Key thinkers include Michel Foucault and Jean Baudrillard.

Research Methods

• Quantitative methods involve collecting and analyzing numerical data.
• Examples include surveys, experiments, and statistical analysis.
• Aim to identify patterns, correlations, and cause-and-effect relationships.
• Qualitative methods involve collecting and analyzing non-numerical data.
• Examples include interviews, focus groups, and observations.
• Aim to understand meanings, experiences, and perspectives.
• Primary data is collected directly by the researcher, while secondary data is existing data collected by others.
• Researchers must consider ethical issues such as informed consent, confidentiality, and potential harm to participants.
• Validity refers to the accuracy of research findings, while reliability refers to the consistency of research findings.
• Sampling techniques are used to select a representative group of participants from a larger population.
• Types of sampling include random, stratified, and snowball sampling.

Families and Households

• Different types of families exist, including nuclear, extended, single-parent, and reconstituted families.
• Functionalists see the family as performing essential functions such as socialization, economic support, and emotional support.
• Marxists argue that the family reproduces social inequality by transmitting wealth and privilege across generations.
• Feminists examine the role of the family in perpetuating gender inequality and patriarchal power structures.
• Changes in family patterns include increased divorce rates, declining marriage rates, and the rise of cohabitation and same-sex relationships.
• Demographic changes, such as an aging population and increased immigration, also impact family structures and dynamics.

Education

• Functionalists see education as performing important functions such as transmitting knowledge, skills, and values, and promoting social mobility.
• Marxists argue that education reproduces social inequality by streaming students into different tracks based on their social class.
• Feminists examine gender inequality in education, including differences in subject choices and achievement levels.
• Interactionists focus on the role of teacher-student interactions and labeling in shaping educational outcomes.
• Factors affecting educational achievement include social class, gender, ethnicity, and school policies.
• Issues in education include curriculum development, school choice, and the impact of technology on learning.

Crime and Deviance

• Crime is behavior that violates criminal laws, while deviance is behavior that violates social norms.
• Functionalists see crime as both disruptive and functional, as it can strengthen social cohesion and promote social change.
• Strain theory suggests that crime occurs when individuals are unable to achieve socially approved goals through legitimate means.
• Labelling theory focuses on how the labeling of individuals as criminals or deviants can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies.
• Marxists argue that crime is a product of capitalism and reflects social inequalities.
• Feminists examine gender differences in crime and victimization, and the role of the criminal justice system in perpetuating gender inequality.
• Factors influencing crime rates include poverty, unemployment, and social disorganization.
• Different types of crime exist, including street crime, white-collar crime, and cybercrime.

Media

• Different theoretical perspectives exist on the role and impact of the media.
• The hypodermic syringe model suggests that the media has a direct and powerful influence on audiences.
• The uses and gratifications theory focuses on how individuals actively choose and use media to satisfy their needs and desires.
• The cultural effects model suggests that the media gradually shapes audiences' beliefs and values over time.
• The media can be analyzed in terms of its content, production, and audience reception.
• Ownership and control of the media are important factors to consider when analyzing media influence.
• The media plays a role in shaping identity, constructing stereotypes, and influencing public opinion.
• New media technologies, such as the internet and social media, have transformed the media landscape.
• Debates exist about the impact of media violence, pornography, and fake news on individuals and society.

Stratification and Inequality

• Social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals and groups in society based on factors such as wealth, power, and prestige.
• Different systems of stratification exist, including caste systems, estate systems, and class systems.
• Social class is a key form of stratification in modern societies.
• Marx defined class in terms of ownership of the means of production, while Weber focused on wealth, power, and status.
• Factors contributing to social inequality include income inequality, wealth inequality, and unequal access to education, healthcare, and other resources.
• Social mobility refers to the ability of individuals to move up or down the social hierarchy.
• Different theoretical perspectives exist on the causes and consequences of social inequality.
• Functionalists argue that inequality is necessary to motivate individuals to work hard and fill important positions in society.
• Marxists argue that inequality is a product of capitalism and benefits the ruling class at the expense of the working class.
• Feminists examine gender inequality and the ways in which women are disadvantaged in various social institutions.
• Poverty is a state of deprivation in which individuals lack the resources to meet their basic needs.
• Globalization and technological change have contributed to increasing social inequality in many countries.

Beliefs in Society

• Religion is a system of beliefs, practices, and organizations that relate to the sacred or supernatural.
• Different types of religious organizations exist, including churches, sects, and cults.
• Functionalists see religion as performing important functions such as providing social cohesion, meaning, and purpose.
• Marxists argue that religion is the "opium of the people" and serves to legitimize social inequality.
• Feminists examine the role of religion in perpetuating gender inequality and patriarchal power structures.
• Secularization refers to the decline in the influence of religion in society.
• Factors contributing to secularization include modernization, rationalization, and individualism.
• New religious movements (NRMs) are alternative religious groups that have emerged in recent decades.
• Science is a system of knowledge based on observation, experimentation, and rational thought.
• Debates exist about the relationship between science and religion, and the extent to which they are compatible or conflicting.
• Ideology is a set of beliefs and values that shape our understanding of the world and justify particular social arrangements.
• Dominant ideologies are those that are widely accepted and support the interests of powerful groups in society.