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Questions and Answers
What type of memory is characterized by personal experiences and specific events?
What type of memory is characterized by personal experiences and specific events?
Which term describes the knowledge related to how to perform various skills?
Which term describes the knowledge related to how to perform various skills?
What is the method that involves observation and hypothesis in empirical inquiry?
What is the method that involves observation and hypothesis in empirical inquiry?
What is suggested by introspection regarding the relationship between concepts?
What is suggested by introspection regarding the relationship between concepts?
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Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a proposition?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a proposition?
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What does the truth value of a unit of meaning refer to?
What does the truth value of a unit of meaning refer to?
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What does the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis suggest about language and perception?
What does the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis suggest about language and perception?
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Which of the following sentences exemplifies a proposition?
Which of the following sentences exemplifies a proposition?
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Which research methodology did Berlin and Kay utilize to examine color perception across different languages?
Which research methodology did Berlin and Kay utilize to examine color perception across different languages?
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What is agnosia?
What is agnosia?
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What role does language play in relation to propositions?
What role does language play in relation to propositions?
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Which best describes prosopagnosia?
Which best describes prosopagnosia?
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Which of the following best describes the main objective of the study conducted by Berlin and Kay?
Which of the following best describes the main objective of the study conducted by Berlin and Kay?
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What conclusion can be drawn about color categorization based on the study of 20 different languages?
What conclusion can be drawn about color categorization based on the study of 20 different languages?
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How are concepts and categories connected in human cognition?
How are concepts and categories connected in human cognition?
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Which language was NOT mentioned as part of Berlin and Kay's study on color perception?
Which language was NOT mentioned as part of Berlin and Kay's study on color perception?
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What are representations in cognitive psychology?
What are representations in cognitive psychology?
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What does 'knowing how' refer to in cognitive psychology?
What does 'knowing how' refer to in cognitive psychology?
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According to the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, how do language constructions affect thinking?
According to the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, how do language constructions affect thinking?
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What aspect of color perception did the research by Berlin and Kay particularly focus on?
What aspect of color perception did the research by Berlin and Kay particularly focus on?
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What is the relationship between propositions and schemata?
What is the relationship between propositions and schemata?
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In the context of color perception studies, which aspect was primarily tested with participants?
In the context of color perception studies, which aspect was primarily tested with participants?
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What is a critical characteristic of semantic knowledge?
What is a critical characteristic of semantic knowledge?
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In cognitive processing, what does 'automatized' mean?
In cognitive processing, what does 'automatized' mean?
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What is the primary function of activation released from a concept node?
What is the primary function of activation released from a concept node?
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What happens to activation when multiple concepts are stimulated?
What happens to activation when multiple concepts are stimulated?
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Which of the following describes a script?
Which of the following describes a script?
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What are the two types of mental representations mentioned?
What are the two types of mental representations mentioned?
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How does repetition affect activation from a concept node?
How does repetition affect activation from a concept node?
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What element is NOT a characteristic of propositional networks?
What element is NOT a characteristic of propositional networks?
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What does the spreading activation model assume?
What does the spreading activation model assume?
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Which of the following best describes cognitive 'knowing how'?
Which of the following best describes cognitive 'knowing how'?
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What is the main distinction between recall and recognition?
What is the main distinction between recall and recognition?
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Which factor could contribute to forgetting information previously learned?
Which factor could contribute to forgetting information previously learned?
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In which category does episodic memory fall?
In which category does episodic memory fall?
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What does meaningful encoding depend on?
What does meaningful encoding depend on?
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What is the primary purpose of organizing new information into chunks?
What is the primary purpose of organizing new information into chunks?
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What are conceptual nodes in the propositional network?
What are conceptual nodes in the propositional network?
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Which of the following is an example of procedural memory?
Which of the following is an example of procedural memory?
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What does mental imagery primarily involve?
What does mental imagery primarily involve?
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What happens when a concept's node is activated?
What happens when a concept's node is activated?
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According to the Atkinson and Shriffin model, what differentiates short-term memory from long-term memory?
According to the Atkinson and Shriffin model, what differentiates short-term memory from long-term memory?
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Which feature of spreading activation theory enhances the strength of the link between concepts?
Which feature of spreading activation theory enhances the strength of the link between concepts?
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What determines the speed at which activation spreads between nodes?
What determines the speed at which activation spreads between nodes?
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What occurs when the distance between items in a propositional network increases?
What occurs when the distance between items in a propositional network increases?
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How does associative thought typically function?
How does associative thought typically function?
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What does the spreading activation theory suggest about nodes when a concept is processed?
What does the spreading activation theory suggest about nodes when a concept is processed?
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What is a critical assumption of the spreading activation theory?
What is a critical assumption of the spreading activation theory?
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Study Notes
Introduction to Cognitive Science
- Course title: KMF 1014
- Cognitive psychology examines mental operations.
- Cognition (Latin): acquiring knowledge through mental powers (knowing)
Cognition
- All processes involving sensory input transformation, reduction, elaboration, storage, retrieval, and use.
Pre-Scientific Experimentation
- Introspection: understanding mental processes.
- Cognitive psychologists seek explanations for all mental functions.
Cognitive Processes
- Underlying mechanisms include language, learning, reasoning, perception, imagery, problem solving, and memory.
Cognitive Capabilities
- Obtaining information through sensation, perception, and attention.
- Storing information through memory representations
- Utilizing acquired information through daily activities.
- Information representations include concepts, propositions, rules, and analogies.
- Storing and retrieving information is accomplished by memory.
- Categorizing information by sensation or abstraction.
The Approach of Cognitive Psychology
- Study of internal mental operations.
- Metaphor for the mind (MIND) is a computer.
- Mental function = Representation & computation.
Computer = Mind? (IP Model)
- Sensory Register (SR)
- Short-Term Memory (STM)
- Long-Term Memory (LTM)
- Input Devices
- Central Processing Unit (CPU)
- Hard Drive Storage
Knowledge in LTM
- Knowing "what" (declarative knowledge) includes semantic and episodic memory, concepts, propositions, schemata
- Knowing "how" (procedural knowledge) includes implicit memory, automated scripts
Reflection
- Organizing experiences of the world.
- Using concepts to organize and develop notions about things.
Concept?
- Mental representation of something that provides a way to understand the world.
- Often captured in a single word (e.g., "food").
- Deriving the concept from specific instances.
- Categorizing objects/events using the concept.
- Coherence or unity in the concept (kepaduan).
Categories?
- A set of objects that "belong" together, due to cohesion.
- A class of similar things.
- Enables prediction of aspects of equivalence regarding other concepts.
- Common features and/or similarity to a prototype (e.g., seafood category).
Concept & Category: Connection
- Concepts and categories are central to representing knowledge.
- Concepts are mental representations for categories.
- Categorization creates the concept.
- A category is a set of objects that "belong" together.
- Fundamental part of human experience.
- Categorizing experience to function in the world (e.g., good vs. bad; safe vs. harmful concepts).
Reflection
- Categorize classmates in three categories (e.g., friendly, studious, athletic).
- Define the basis for categorization.
Recap: Concept & Category
- A concept is a mentally possessed idea or notion.
- A category is a group of objects.
Mechanism for Concept & Category Formation
- Innate ability to categorize.
- Categorization based on sensory input (e.g., taste, sound).
- Categorization based on abstraction (e.g., emotions).
Categorization: Human Cognition
- Categorization is fundamental to human cognition because environmental information comes through the senses.
- Sorting and classifying information.
- Memory crucial for categorization.
Categorization Study: Approaches
- Criteria for assigning concepts to a category.
- Theoretical approaches: exemplar, feature, prototype.
The 'Exemplar' Approach
- Every instance of a category is stored in memory.
- Classifies objects based on similarity to stored exemplars.
The 'Feature' Approach
- Categories have necessary and sufficient features.
- Membership depends on possessing those features (e.g., "husband" = adult male, married).
The 'Prototype' Approach
- Representation (norm/typical).
- Best/most representative member of a category.
- Comparing new objects to prototypes; approximating.
- Fast to categorize. "Average" of the type (e.g., typical dog).
Summary
- No single approach is sufficient for categorization.
- A combination of strategies is used.
Categories: Experimental Evidence
- Perceptual categories (e.g., color).
- Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (linguistic relativity): Language influences thought.
- Study by Berlin & Kay (1969): Tested the hypothesis by presenting 320 color chips.
- Found 11 basic color categories across cultures.
- Disconfirmed the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.
Categorization Using Hierarchy
- Categories organized hierarchically (e.g., furniture > table, lamp, chair > kitchen chair).
- Superordinate, basic, and subordinate levels.
- The higher up the hierarchy the les specificity and detail but more shared attributes.
- Example of different levels of a fruit hierarchy
Categorization Based on Free Sorting
- Categorization occurs when people confront the world.
- Existing categories from culture and experience.
- Categories constructed by individuals.
Category Loss
- Difficulty recognizing/describing something previously known.
- Due to brain injury, resulting in loss of categorization ability (e.g., Agnosia, Prosopagnosia).
Recap
- Human acquire concepts and categorize.
- Two types of representations: concept based on visual/perception and proposition based on meaning.
- Propositional networks consisting of nodes and links.
- Spreading activation model showing activation spreading.
Memory
- Memory is integral to learning, thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, and communication.
Role of Memory
- How humans represent the world.
- Learning.
- Thinking.
- Reasoning.
- Solving problems.
- Communication.
The Psychological Approach (Cognitive Psychology)
- Study of internal mental operations.
- Computer as a metaphor for the MIND.
- Mental Function = representation & computation.
- Human learners are information processors.
Cognitive Information Processing
- Input (SR), processing (STM), output (LTM).
The Modal Memory Model
- Sensory register, Short Term memory, Long Term memory.
- Sensory Memory, Short Term Memory, Long Term Memory and processes to transfer between the memory stores.
- Control Processes (readily modified or preprogrammed) transfer to different memories.
Coding
- Ways information is represented (e.g., visual, phonological, semantic).
The Sensory Store
- Records incoming information (from all senses).
- Short duration (< 1 second). Iconic (vision), Echoic (hearing) memory.
- Large capacity.
Short Term/Working Memory
- Brief storage (30 seconds).
- Limited capacity.
- Manipulation of information while stored.
- Input from sensory & long-term memory.
- Examples include speech and visual forms
Long Term Memory
- Unlimited capacity.
- Permanent storage.
- Transfer from STM.
- Elaboration/mnemonics/rehearsal.
Retrieval of Information from LTM
- Retrieval = locating information previously stored.
- Recall: retrieving information without cues.
- Recognition: retrieve using pre-generated stimuli.
But...Why Do We Forget?
- Reasons for forgetting include: failure to encode, failures to retrieve, interference
Recap
- Memory structures include sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.
- Memory processes include encoding, storage, and retrieval.
- Memory can be categorized according to type (declarative, procedural, episodic).
Tulvings Model
- Categorization of memory by type of remembering (declarative, episodic, procedural).
Recap/Summary
- Summary of memory structure and processes, and various models, with duration of memory stores.
Memory: Implications on Learning
- Organizing new information into meaningful chunks.
- Encouraging both verbal and imagery coding.
- Encouraging deeper processing through elaboration.
- Meaningful encoding as key for retrieval
Reflection: Unit 2
- Questions about concepts, categories, theoretical approaches to categorization, mental representations, and different types of memory.
Ideas for Group Project
- Project ideas regarding problem-solving, memory, experts vs. novices, workplace, and university settings.
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