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• The end of the second invasions and improvement in climatic conditions marked the start of the Late Middle Ages, lasting from the 11th to the 15th centuries.
• Improvements in agriculture led to increased food production, population growth, and trade.
• Old Roman cities and new towns welcomed artisans and merchants (bourgeoisie), revitalizing the economy.
• The bourgeoisie's increasing influence led to protection from the kings, who strengthened their power against the nobility.
• Most of Europe had a rural, subsistence economy one thousand years ago.
• The disappearance of threats like Viking invasions and feudal wars led to the growth of trade and cities.

The Rise in Agricultural Production

• Europe experienced warmer weather between the 11th and 14th centuries, leading to agricultural expansion and innovation.
• Mouldboard ploughs and new harnesses such as the horse collar increased land fertility.
• The three-field system reduced fallow land and allowed alternation of winter and spring cereals on the same plot.
• Widespread windmills and watermills simplified cereal grinding.
• Increased productivity resulted in surplus food and labor in the countryside.

Population Growth

• Improved diets increased disease resistance and reduced mortality.
• Europe's population increased from 45 million in the 12th century to 75 million in the 14th century.
• Increased agricultural land use occurred because people cultivated abandoned fields and deforested new areas.
• Population growth in the countryside caused people to move to cities, where there was more freedom and better living conditions.

Agricultural Surplus

• Productivity and agricultural land generated surplus crops sold in markets.
• Lords and peasants used profits to purchase weapons, luxury items, tools, and fabrics, boosting trade and artisanal production.
• Merchants, artisans, and migrant peasants settled in cities (burghs).
• Existing cities were revitalized, and new cities were built at crossroads or near castles/abbeys.
• A three-field system meant only 1/3 of land was left fallow each year, increasing fertilisation compared to half in the old two-field system.
• Manure improved fertilisation.
• Horse shoes increased the towing capacity of horses and mules and made them faster than oxen using the plough.
• Mills used water or wind to turn a shaft, moving machinery like a grindstone.

Trade Growth Factors

• Trade increased due to more agricultural products & increased rural population money.
• Horse collars and horseshoes enhanced traction and overland journeys.
• A sternpost-mounted rudder improved maritime transport.
• Monetary circulation increased, with better payment methods such as bills of exchange for cashless transactions.
• Local trade between rural villages and medium-distance routes between villages/cities were boosted
• Annual fairs were organized in many cities.
• Long-distance trade innovation, usually by sea routes to the Far East and Africa.
• Northern Italy and the Netherlands were main Mediterranean and Atlantic hubs.
• Trade expanded due to increased safety between the 11th and 13th centuries
• Monarchs used taxes on artisans/merchants to establish authority over the mobility and protect cities.
• Main overland routes connected Mediterranean and northern ports.
• Atlantic Ocean routes became safer after Viking invasions ended.
• The Crusades strengthened the Byzantine Empire and created small Christian states in the Mediterranean Sea.
• The Mediterranean route linked Europe with the Byzantine Empire and Middle East for luxury products, fabrics and weapons.
• Atlantic and Baltic routes extended from Lisbon, Spain's Cantabrian Sea to the Hanseatic League in the Baltic Sea.
• Bruges and Ghent were centers of artisan distribution and production.
• Traded products were salt, wool, wine, fur, amber, wood and wheat.
• Main Mediterranean trading expeditions started in Venice, Genoa, Marseille, & Barcelona, and ended in Constantinople, Antioch, & Alexandria.
• The 13th century had few docks, and even fewer cranes. Boats anchored far from shore, with goods taken ashore in rowing boats subsequently replaced sailing boats.

How Banking Evolved

• Increased trade led to new financial instruments creation.
• Cities minted coins, creating money changers to exchange currency.
• Bills of exchange addressed the danger of carrying coins.
• Merchants gave money to a banker with international branches for a guaranteed bill of exchange
• Individuals/companies offered commercial credits to finance merchant expeditions for interest.

Medieval City Characteristics

• Medieval cities = near roads and able to meet inhabitants' basic needs (soil, water, wood, stone).
• These cities had walls to defend against attacks and collect taxes from visitors.
• The street layout was irregular, with main buildings clustered around a central square.
• The cathedral, town hall, and market were located in a central square.
• Neighborhoods were based on community (religion/trade).
• Infectious diseases due to narrow streets and poor hygiene.
• New neighborhoods existed outside walls for the poor and tradesman like blacksmiths and tanners.
• Inhabitants elected magistrates responsible for finance, order and justice, working under the mayor/burgomaster.
• A privileged group the urban Patricia's governed by wealthy merchant/banker families, and urban nobility.
• Trade linked production centers, commercial routes + customers.
• Religion was at the heart (cathedrals, churches, convents) & higher education (universities, cathedral schools)

The inhabitants of Medieval cities

• Cities = hubs that produced most products and hosted most trade.
• With inhabitants typically ranging from 15,000 to 30,000, but in limited cases 200,000 in larger cities
• Artisans formed guilds to prevent competition and regulated quality, quantity, and prices.
• Artisans lived on the same streets, names for their craft, such as cutlers, silversmiths, and weavers.
• The bourgeoisie were divided into the upper bourgeoisie (bankers/merchants) and petty bourgeoisie (artisans/small-scale merchants).
• Medieval cities home to nobles, clergymen, and many poor people.
• The inhabitants were free and without direct ties a feudal lord by living in the same city for a year.
• Each artisan workshop was owned by a master artisan, their home and shop. Masters employed artisans and apprentices.
• Guilds had a strict training system. You had to serve as an apprentice then become an artisan before passing a test for master status.
• They also formed brotherhoods (religious functions, members looked after).
• Weekly market days helped people sold agricultural products to those in the city, most people being illiterate so shops used recognisable symbols.
• Merchants resold afar, buying cattle for elsewhere.

The Middle Ages Hierarchy

• The most powerful feudal lord in the system until the 12th century was the king.
• Monarchs required bourgeoisie support to impose authority over the nobility.
• Bourgeoisie support for trade and the power to influence the king's decisions.
• Royal charters (provided privileges, self-government, trading monopolies, and freedom of movement).
• Bourgeoisie paid taxes that allowed monarchs to pay for armies and officials, allowing them to impose their authority over feudal lords.
• Monarchs ruled with nobles and clergyman in a Royal Council from the 12th century, inviting the bourgeoisie to represent cities.
• Three estates met (clergy, nobility, bourgeoisie) in parliaments, where the king recognized the importance of the group in society.
• Laws gave power to monarchs to have authority through established duties and rights.

The Arrival of the Black Death

• In the 14th century, Europe faced hunger, wars, and the plague.
• Black Death originated in Asia, arriving in Europe around 1348, transmitted mainly by flea.
• Symptoms: fever, breathing complexities, skin turned black.
• Partial remedies didn't end the pandemic which struck multiple times, but with decreasing intensity.
• The first cases of the Black Death were recorded in the Gobi Desert, reaching China in 1334 before Italy later.
• Climatic changes in Asia killed flea-ridden gerbils + fleas looked to infect humans and rats.
• Disease had catastrophic effects on society, with effects increased due to wars, poor quality land, bad harvests and the Little Ice Age.
• The Black Death killed between 30% and 40% of Europe's population of 73 to 45 million, towns were deserted.
• Economic impacts, reduction of artisans and reduced demand led to fall in production and high prices for day laborers.
• Social impacts increased taxes, revolts against feudal lords and trade caused urban revolts
• Some fanatic believers saw plague as punishment and took part in processions to atone their sins.

Gothic Cathedrals

• Gothic buildings that were built 500 years ago still amaze today like skyscrapers.
• Gothic art developed in France, mid-12th century, spreading West to Europe with last until the 15th century.
• The bourgeoisie and clergy drove the urban art style.
• The building that reflected a city's wealth + power = cathedral.

Gothic Buildings

• Gothic cathedrals marvels, airy/high vaults, lightweight pillars and bright windows.
• The pointed arch was lighter and gave more downward thrust than the Romanesque semi-circular arch.
• Ribbed vaults sections, transferred the weight of the vault through the four columns or pillars.
• Flying buttresses reinforced the walls and counteracted the lateral force created by the roof.
• Pinnacles and spires made the cathedral appear slimmer.
• The main façade had three doors, leading to three naves, with tall towers and often a rose window.
• Reflected religiousness of society statues of Virgin and stain adored the façades, and light with colour with glass windows.
• Cathedrals were large public building for spiritual and political use.
• The cathedral had a central nave, crossing, apse chapels, side aisles and transept.

Gothic Art

• Religious themes continued to dominate Gothic sculptures/paintings that had important changes.
• Religious sculptures represented nobles and kings that were statues carved from buildings, standing wooden sculptures.
• Also were carved tombs + wooden altarpieces.
• Compared to rigid + expressionless styles, Romanesque styles were much realistic.
• Gothic styled faces = emotions.
• Figures reflected emotions.
• Figures were more voluminous with clothing and body being realistic.
• The painters also used movement gestures to create moving figures with interacting figures.
• Large windows in Gothic buildings reduced large wall painting surfaces as Romanesque art made the medium more appealing.
• New mediums to paint with included glass wood, the art forms called altarpieces.

Gothic Painting Techniques

• Tempera - Colored pigments and a glutinous substance (egg yolk).
• Oil Painting - Pigments of oil allowing greater levels of detail with more natural expressive imagery.
• The Italian School was characterised by religious works
• The Flemish school with a high level of detail, oil panel made religious paintings as well as landscapes + portraits with Jan van Eyck + Rogier van der Weyden
• The Very Rich Hours of the Duke of Berry was made in the middle ages as manuscripts were created decorated with social customs decorated.
• Venice between the 9th + 18th centuries was a commercial Mediterranean city in the Adriatic sea
• Reaching 70 000 residents 15th century Venice became a commercial city.
• Venice is north of the Mediterranean Sea & South of Italy, close to Murano, Lido, Torcello, and Burano.
• Venice had 118 bridge linked canals meaning limited need for walls
• Venezia main transport features were limited with Venice's centre feature being the canals that runs over the city.
• The Grand Canal served as Venice's main route.
• Commerce easy Venice maritime trade as merchants chose this profitable opportunity.
• "Jewish Quarter" was a neighbourhoods that were inhabited by people who lived near the Venice Ghetto
• The island of Giudecca means "island of the Jews" which was a place for Jews living in Venice.
• Cities typically had 4-6k inhabitants, with fifty cities in Western Europe having 50k to 100k inhabitants like London, Milan, Cologne, Florence etc with possibly Barcelona.
• Venice has an estimated population of 200000 inhabitants.